Constantine and the Edict of Milan

Early Middle Ages

Part 1

The success of Christianity in the first five centuries of its existence was significantly influenced by the Roman experience. Christianity emerged as a fringe Jewish sect in the Roman Empire that faced persecution and discrimination in the early days. However, the religion eventually became the official religion of the empire under Emperor Constantine in the 4th century. The following are some of the factors that contributed to this transformation.

One significant factor was the extensive missionary work carried out by early Christian leaders. The apostles and other Christian leaders traveled widely, spreading their message throughout the Roman Empire. The writings of these leaders, such as the letters of Saint Paul, were also instrumental in spreading the Christian message (Cole, Symes).

Persecutions also played a role in the success of Christianity. The Roman authorities viewed the religion as a threat to their power and persecuted its adherents. However, these persecutions only served to strengthen the faith of Christians, who saw their suffering as a sign of their devotion to God (Cole, Symes). Christian martyrs became an inspiration to others, and their stories helped to spread the faith.

Heresy was also a significant issue in the early Christian Church. Different interpretations of Christian doctrine led to disagreements and divisions among the faithful. The Church Fathers, such as Augustine and Jerome, worked to codify Christian doctrine and suppress heretical teachings (Cole, Symes).

Emperor Constantine's conversion to Christianity was a turning point in the religion's history. In the 4th century, Constantine issued the Edict of Milan, which granted religious tolerance to Christians and other religions. He also convened the Council of Nicaea, which defined orthodox Christian doctrine and established the Petrine doctrine, which held that the Bishop of Rome was the successor to Saint Peter and had primacy over all other bishops (Cole, Symes).

Monasticism also emerged as an important aspect of Christian practice in the 4th century. Monks and nuns withdrew from the world to live lives of contemplation and devotion. Monasticism spread rapidly throughout the empire and played a critical role in the establishment of Christian communities (Cole, Symes).

Finally, the division of the Roman Empire into Western and Eastern halves in the 5th century had a significant impact on Christianity. The Eastern Roman Empire, which became known as the Byzantine Empire, developed a distinct form of Christianity that differed from that practiced in the Western Roman Empire. Eastern Christianity emphasized the importance of icons and had a more mystical approach to worship (Cole, Symes).

Thus, Christianity's success in the first five centuries of its existence was shaped by a complex set of factors, including missionary work, persecution, heresy, Constantine's conversion, the Church Fathers, the Petrine doctrine, monasticism, and the division of the Roman Empire. These factors combined to transform a fringe Jewish sect into the official religion of the empire and laid the groundwork for the development of Christianity as a global religion.

Part 2

Each of the civilizations that emerged in the wake of the collapse of the Western Roman Empire could make a claim to carry forward the legacies of the classical past. However, of the three civilizations mentioned - Byzantine, Islam, and the Barbarian West - the Byzantine Empire has the strongest claim to this mantle. This is due to the fact that the Byzantines directly inherited the institutions and culture of the Roman Empire and continued to build upon them.

The Byzantine Empire emerged in the 4th century AD after the Roman Empire was divided into Eastern and Western halves. The Eastern Roman Empire, which became known as the Byzantine Empire, was centered around the city of Constantinople and continued to be a major political and cultural force in the region for over a millennium. The Byzantines preserved and expanded upon the classical heritage of Greece and Rome, making significant contributions to art, architecture, literature, law, philosophy, and science (Cole, Symes).

For instance, the Byzantines made significant contributions to the development of secular and ecclesiastical law. The emperor was seen as the ultimate source of law, and he could issue edicts and decrees that had the force of law. However, the Byzantines also developed a complex legal system based on Roman law, which was codified in the Justinian Code. This code served as the basis for many modern legal systems and included a comprehensive set of laws and legal procedures.

Plus, the Byzantines made significant contributions to the development of ecclesiastical law. The Byzantine Empire was closely linked to the Orthodox Church, and the emperor played a significant role in ecclesiastical affairs. The church was organized into a hierarchical system, with the patriarch of Constantinople serving as the highest-ranking official. The church also developed a complex legal system, including canon law, which governed the behavior of clergy and laypeople (Cole, Symes).

Additionally, one of the most significant contributions of the Byzantines was in the field of art and architecture. The Byzantine Empire was home to some of the most iconic and enduring buildings in the world, such as the Hagia Sophia in Constantinople, which still stands today as a symbol of Byzantine architectural excellence. Byzantine art was also characterized by its intricate mosaics and vivid icons, which depicted religious and secular subjects with a level of detail and complexity that was unparalleled at the time.

On the other hand, Islam emerged in the 7th century AD in the Arabian Peninsula, with the Prophet Muhammad founding the religion in 610 AD. Muhammad's message emphasized the importance of monotheism and social justice, and he attracted a significant following in the Arabian Peninsula. After Muhammad's death, his followers continued to spread the religion through the Arab expansion, which saw the conquest of much of the Middle East and North Africa. Sunni and Shia factions emerged in the aftermath of the Prophet's death, with the two groups differing in their interpretation of the role of leadership in Islam. The Umayyad and Abbasid Caliphates followed, with the latter establishing the Islamic Golden Age and making significant contributions to mathematics, astronomy, medicine, and other fields (Cole, Symes).