Effects of rising sea levels on Boston Harbor environmental policy

Rising Sea Levels: Boston Harbor Case

The change in the climate of our planet is mainly a result of the increase in the global temperatures and the greenhouse gases. These gases and the rise in temperatures have affected our planet in many different ways. One of the most serious issues caused by these increased greenhouse gases and rise in temperatures is the increase in the water levels of sea. It has been observed that each year the sea water level on the eastern coast of the United States is increasing by up to 3mm (Church, & White 2011).

The buildings that lie near the shores are greatly threatened by this increase in the water levels. Now, the two most important concerns of the shore protection are to deal with the damages done by the waves and the coastal flooding and how to prevent these damages (Morang, 2006, chapter V-3, para. 1). The reason why the floods and waves are considered to be doing more damage is the fact that there exists a direct relation between the height of the water levels and the severity of the floods. Although it will takes hundreds of years for the water to actually overtake the buildings but still even a little increase in the water levels impacts the number and severity of the storms, which will start affecting the buildings very soon.

The major aim of our project was to find out ways through which we can build the buildings in such a way that they could adapt to the rising sea levels in a better manner. Upon the completion of our aim we gave a paper with various options and business memo to The Boston Harbor Association (TBHA); which we to then forward to the mayor. In these recommendations we have kept in mind the new as well as the old structures that will be renovated according to the rising sea levels. Therefore, our instructions and recommendations cater to the new as well as the old buildings and structures. Our recommendations have varying costs, how they can be implemented and the extent to which these implementations can be carried on. We have also searched about the legalities involved with some of the renovations such as the zoning codes and modification of the buildings. These legalities have also been mentioned in the documents (Beaulieu et al., 2011).

Introduction

Global warming is a phenomenon that has mainly resulted from the increase in the greenhouse gases in the earth's atmosphere. The increased trend of the burning of fossil fuels in the past few centuries has also contributed to this increase in the temperatures to a great extent. All this increase in the greenhouse gases and the increase in temperature have affected the sea water levels which have started to increase (Chan, 2007).

Due to this increase in the sea levels many coastal areas have started to get affected whereas, there are still many that have a chance of getting affected in the future. Plans need to be made by the authorities responsible for the coastal areas to ensure that necessary protective measures are being taken to protect the infrastructure as well as the people living in those areas. Places like Venice and Italy have already started to take the necessary measures to avoid future damages. All over the world the coastal areas are getting affected as the shorelines are changing as well, when those areas were established there was no such thing as global warming and therefore, this factor wasn't taken into consideration. However, the regulatory authorities and the governments of those particular areas need to make the necessary adjustments in order to avoid and minimize future damages (Chan, 2007).

Boston Harbor is among those sites in the world that are endangered due to the rise in the water levels. The authorities need to take some immediate actions in order to ensure that the buildings and the undeveloped areas in Boston Harbor aren't lost to the long-term flooding and storms. More and more land is coming under water as a result of the increase in the sea levels, due to this there is a huge chance that people will start losing their lands and businesses and in the worst case scenarios their lives as well. Therefore, the authorities concerned with the protection of Boston Harbor need to implement strategies and plans to ensure that the buildings and infrastructure is safe and protected against the upcoming floods and waves (City of Boston, 2011; CFR, 2011; Chan, 2007).

The buildings in the Massachusetts state have been build in such a way that they can withstand the flooding that results from the heavy rainfall. However, even those buildings can't deal with the increasing sea levels as; they were not built in accordance with the changing global climate. Some recent studies suggest that, on the eastern coast of the United States, the sea levels are increasing in the range of 2.8-0.8 to 3.2 -0.2 mm/year (Church & White, 2011). This increase has been seen by the satellite images. Therefore, it is of utmost importance that the buildings should be made adaptable to the floods that are only going to get worse in the future.

Although it might seem like a few millimeters each year isn't a big deal, however, the impact of these few millimeters on the upcoming floods is huge and this will keep getting worse as time will go by and the sea level will keep on rising. Many of Boston's waterfront properties will be facing a lot of damage. For example; George Island is a small island that is located in the Boston Harbor and is merely 15 meters above the sea level. This island has the historical Fort Warren and in case it gets damaged by the floods it would result in the loss or damage of a historical building (Kirshen, Knee, & Ruth, 2008).

Although a lot of scholarly literature can be found on the increase in temperatures and the raised sea levels, however, at the moment there isn't much data available on the sea levels near Boston Harbor. The planners need to carefully examine the whole situation before coming up with a solution for this problem of increased sea level. However, the thing that needs to be kept in mind here is that most of the City of Boston isn't much higher than the sea level as it is built on the filled grounds. Therefore, the planners need to keep in mind the fact that the waterfront is the first line of defense in case of floods and storms. If the waterfront is made in such a way that it would stand its ground in case of floods then the rest of the city can be saved from the dangers of the floods to a large extent (City of Boston, 2011).

Hence, the aim of our project is to highlight the best adaptation techniques and figure out how they can be utilized in the construction of the new buildings and the renovations done to the older buildings.

Historical background to the selected issue

Icecaps in the northern and southern regions of our planet have been melting due to the global warming. These melting icecaps have resulted in an increase in the water levels in different areas. Along with the melting of the icecaps the flooding that took place in the New England in the past have resulted in an increase in the usual floods and this ultimately has started to affect the areas that were considered to be safe in the past (City of Boston, 2011).

The Boston Harbor Association has realized the problems that are being caused by the increased sea levels and it has realized the need for adaptation in order to ensure that the Boston Harbor remains safe and an enjoyable place for the people to visit and live near (City of Boston, 2011).

Key concerns

What makes Boston's situation even more serious is the fact that it lies very near to the ocean. Also, most of the infrastructure in Boston has been built on the landfill which is hardly above the sea level. All this increases the risks of Boston getting affected by the floods and storms in the future. There already are some places in Boston which have been affected by the floods and the low heights at which the buildings have been build increases the risks of Boston getting affected from the floods, which will only get worse in the future (City of Boston, 2011).

There is a much better chance of Boston dealing with the floods in the future if the planners and the authorities observe and learn about the SLR's past patterns (City of Boston, 2011).

Firstly, the mean historical sea levels have been provided by numerous researches for the Boston Harbor area. The average sea level trend has been shown in Figure 1 around Boston. According to this data an increase of 2.63 millimeters per year can be observed in the mean SLR trend with a margin of 5% for error (NOAA, 2010, para. 1).

Figure 1: The average sea level patterns in Boston from 1900 (Beaulieu et al., 2011)

As, this project is concerned with the measures that need to be taken for the events that might take place in the future and because it is being considered that the sea levels will continue to rise in the future as well (City of Boston, 2011). Therefore, in Figure 2 the data shows the alarming increase in the sea levels due to which more buildings and construction sites will be at risk of getting affected by the floods and the storms.

Figure 2: anticipated annual sea levels from 2000 to 2100 as cited in P. Kirshen, K. Knee, & M. Ruth (2008).

The probable sea levels for Boston from the year 2000-2100 have been shown in Figure 2 (Kirshen, 2008). The 100-year floodplain has been shown by the bold, straight dotted line whereas the 500-year floodplain has been shown by the solid, straight line.

Figure 3: The 100-Year flood Zone is highlighted under the 'Higher Emissions Scenario' in the study conducted by the Union of Concerned Scientists (2007).

From the figure and illustrations above, it is easy to understand the urgency that is required within Boston to protect the nearby construction sites and building from any damage that can be caused by the floods. This is also true because of the fact that the SLR will increase the sea level and simultaneously increase the frequency of floods and height of floods (CFR, 2011).

Existing Flood Precautions in Building Codes -- the Massachusetts case

There exists a minimum set of standards that have to be met for the building that are constructed in the United States. These set of standards are included in the International Building Code (IBC) (2009) and these have been adopted by the Commonwealth of Massachusetts completely.

The regulations that are related to our project are mostly the standards that are present in the section 1612 and Appendix G: Flood-Resistant Construction of the IBC which regulate the rulings with regards to the flooding protocols and precautions (IBC, 2009).

Basically rules such as the implementation of the rules, the duties and powers of the regulatory authorities, acquiring permits for the buildings to be built in the flood zones are some of the things that are included in the IBC's provisions for flood-resistant construction (IBC, 2009).

As the IBC rules and regulations consist of very basic standards that need to be met by the people concerned with the construction or renovation of the buildings, therefore, there is a lot of room for improvement that could be done to these rules. However, at times these rules aren't the only ones that need to be followed; usually the contractor or the owner of the property will have to get the building permit. In order to get that permit that person might have to fulfill certain requirements that have been described by the regulatory authority issuing the permits. Therefore, in a situation like this the contractors building or renovating the building will have to abide by not only the IBC rules but also the requirements that have been issued for them in order to get the permit (CFR, 2011).

For the commercial and the base codes the IBC has been adopted by the Massachusetts to the full extent. Major modifications have been made by the Commonwealth concerning the codes (Massachusetts Board of Building Regulations and Standards, 2010, para. 1). These changes, made to the section 1612 and Appendix G of the IBC, are also included in these modifications.

There isn't much protection being offered by the Massachusetts' building codes against the climate and the SLR changes even though the section 1612 and Appendix G of the IBC has been modified by the Commonwealth as well. Right now only the very basic protection is being offered by the codes against the flooding (Massachusetts Board of Building Regulations and Standards, 2010, §115).

The IBC and the Massachusetts version of Appendix G of the building code is different as, the Massachusetts version (Flood-Resistant Construction and Construction in Coastal Dunes) contains a lot more definitions in the definition subsection as well as the fact that it defines the places such as coastal dunes in a lot more detail (Chan, 2007).

Although improvements have been made in the base IBC code but the Massachusetts state codes can still be improved to a great extent as, according to them there still isn't any authorization that the buildings are protected in a manner that measures up to the SLR. This was important to highlight here as Boston Harbor authorities can learn a lot from the methods and structures applied within Massachusetts (Chan, 2007).

Regulations Set by the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA)

Article 25 of the Boston Zoning Code, entitled "Flood Hazard Districts" is the last place from where the flood plain regulations can be found for the City of Boston. This article contains all the requirements that have to be met by the constructors while they are building in the flood hazard areas that have been marked by the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) (FEMA, 2009b).

Flood Insurance Rate Maps (FIRMs) are released by FEMA on regular basis. These maps outline the flood-prone areas of various places including Boston's Suffolk County. There exists various levels of the flood hazards and various areas are labeled according to these levels. Zone names are given to these areas. "A" zone and "V" zone are the most common names that are given to the Suffolk County. The areas that lie under the "A" zone are the ones that have high risk whereas the areas that lie on the coastlines are the ones that are marked as the "V" zone (FEMA, 2009a, para. 1).

In order to still be a part of the agency's National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP), the City of Boston had to follow a new set of FIRMs that were released by FEMA in March 2009 for the Suffolk County. In the Paragraph 60.3(e) of the NFIP regulations FEMA had outlined the new regulations. The Article 25 of the zoning code entitled "Flood Hazard Districts" was amended by the City of Boston according to the requirements of FEMA on September 25th of 2009 (FEMA, 2009b).

Development in the Boston Harbor Area

There are four major developmental projects being made in the Boston Harbor that are in various stages of completion. These projects are:

The Spaulding Rehabilitation Hospital at the Charlestown Navy Yard

Seaport Square Innovation District project

Pier 4 Innovation District project

Fan Pier Innovation District project (Beaulieu et al., 2011)

Spaulding Rehabilitation Hospital

Partners HealthCare Inc. (2009) did a report on the new Spaulding Rehabilitation Hospital that is located at the Boston Harbor. According to this report the owners of the hospital have not only realized the affects the increasing sea levels might have in the future but they have also implemented some strategies in the design of the building in order to deal with this problem (Partners HealthCare Inc., 2009).

As the Spaulding Rehabilitation Hospital will be located at the Charlestown Navy Yard the chances of it facing the floods both from the Mystic River and the Harbor are a lot more than usual. Therefore, the architects of the building took these factors into consideration as well as the recent literature on SLR and accordingly decided what the height of the ground and the rest of the floors should be along with the planning about building the outer protective walls (Partners HealthCare Inc., 2009).

The life of the building is approximated to be about 75 years and as, the owners want to make sure that the building remains working throughout those 75 years they have made sure that it has all the necessary features to withstand the floods and storms. According to the SLR it was noted that the estimated levels of the water in the next century can be anywhere from 0.9 feet to 4.6 feet. Therefore, according to this data 2.5 feet of SLR was chosen by the design team as the life of the building is considered to be 75 years (Partners HealthCare Inc., 2009).

The approximate MSL (Mean Sea Level) ratings were also provided by the FEMA maps for the site on which the project was being built. The 100-year flood line was projected at +10.0 MSL according to the recent maps whereas; the 500-year flood line was approximated at +11.0 MSL (Partners HealthCare Inc., 2009).

The design team of the Spaulding Rehabilitation Hospital made use of the FEMA's maps to find out about the future threats. They kept the SLR as 2.5 feet. The results showed that the 100-year flood line would result in +12.0 MSL and the 500-year flood line at 13.0 MSL (Partners HealthCare Inc., 2009).

After taking the data from all these calculations into account, it was then decided that the ground floor will be established at +13.35 MSL. Therefore, now all the places of entry into the building including the basement lie above this level. According to the 2.5 feet SLR the building is now 1.35 feet above the estimated 100-year flood line (Partners HealthCare Inc., 2009).

The reason why the worst case scenario of 4.6 feet of SLR could not be adopted was because in wasn't practical as, there are limitations when it comes to the height of the building as well as the minimum distance between the heights of the floors. In order to follow the 4.6 feet SLR the hospital would have had to lose one floor, which was not a feasible option. Also, the elevation, which would have resulted by building according to the 4.6 feet SLR, would have made it difficult for the people to reach the building from the streets. Another issue was that of meeting the regulations that have been made by the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA, 2010). These regulations have been discussed in the report later on (Partners HealthCare Inc., 2009).

Many other precautionary measures were taken by the builders as well. For example in order to avoid problems in case that the water did enter the building all the electrical and the mechanical equipment was placed on the roof. Also, in order to avoid any inconvenience for the patients, the space that would be occupied by the users was made above the ground floor.

Seaport Square

Epsilon Associates Inc. (2010) wrote a report according to which the development of the Seaport Square has already begun. This Seaport Square is being built in such a manner so as to ensure that it is an innovative representation of a new and modern neighborhood in the South Boston. Various ways have been outlined by the Final Environmental Impact Report (FEIR) to make sure that this neighborhood not only protects it but also the surrounding buildings from the floods and storms (Epsilon Associates Inc., 2010).

The exact plans as to how the architects and the builders are planning to protect this neighborhood from the floods haven't come yet. However, there is a lot of basic information available regarding the plans of adapting the neighborhood to the SLR. Listed below are some of the measures that have been given by the builders in order to adapt to the SLR (Epsilon Associates Inc., 2010). All these measures are listed in the project's FEIR and are as follows:

The air-intakes in the parking garage will be designed in such a manner that they will be able to withstand the flooding conditions of street level that may take place in the future.

The exhausts in the parking garage will be placed at least 10 feet above the ground.

The blocks that lie within the project site and who are more susceptible to the 500-year flood event due to their base elevation need to be identified.

The first floor elevation of the finished building will be set above the flood level of 500 years.

The ventilation intake of the building will be placed at the intermediate levels and the rooftop. In this it will not be in the danger of getting submerged in case of floods.

On the second floor of the building the electrical equipment can be placed as it won't be in any danger of submergence in case of a flood. However, the final decision will be made as the individual blocks will be completed.

The third party builders and developers needs to be guided about how to proceed with the individual blocks in accordance with the designs and the strategies that have been made by the architects and the designers.

Either with the help of the temporary protection measures or with the help of the permanent design features the entrance ramps at the parking garage will be protected against the 500-year flood levels (Epsilon Associates Inc., 2010).

Pier 4

Arrowstreet Inc. And Goulston & Storrs (2004) prepared a FIER. According to this FIER the developmental project that is being built in the Innovation District in South Boston at the Pier 4 will be built at a height that will be according to the levels accepted for the 500-year flood. A minimum elevation of just over 500-year flood level of +11 MSL will be there in the Pier 4 project like majority of the projects developed in the South Boston. The lowest point of the site lies at +11.35 MSL, this calculation is given by excluding the space for the basement (Arrowstreet Inc. And Goulston & Storrs, 2004).

Fan Pier

The Fan Pier is a project that is being built at the South Boston Harbor. This project is currently under construction and once completed it will take up to 21 acres of the waterfront property on the Boston Harbor (Arrowstreet Inc. And Goulston & Storrs, 2004).

This project will comprise of a restaurant, residential and retail space. There are also going to be two parks in this project. The parks are going to be elevated at +11.85 MSL (+17.5 BCB). The high tide in this area is +10.5 BCB whereas; the low tide in this area is +1 BCB. The SLR for this design of the project was not considered as its construction took place in 2001 (Arrowstreet Inc. And Goulston & Storrs, 2004).

Summary

There are many factors that are contributing to the changes in the climatic conditions of our planet. Due to these changes in the climatic conditions the temperature of the Earth is rising. This increase in the temperature has started to affect the sea level, which is increasing each year. The major issue that is taking place from the increased SLR is flooding. It has been seen in the past as well that floods can cause extensive damages as they have in places such as Italy, Holland and Venice (Cohen et al., 2011).

However, now it is being observed that the SLR has started creating problems for the Boston Harbor. Therefore, we have studied the Massachusetts State Building Code and the International Building Code in order to understand in a better way exactly what needs to be done and how the other places are dealing with the SLR. We have come up with suggestions and recommendations for The Boston Harbor Association so that they can cope with the issues related to the SLR in a better way. Latter section of this paper will contain detailed discussions of the recommendations (Cohen et al., 2011).

Policy alternatives

Adaptation Techniques

The SLR adaptation techniques that have been found by recent researches have been mentioned in this section. Some of these techniques have been adapted and are being used whereas most of them aren't being used. Given below is a list of the ATs that have been used at someplace in the world and others that can be used (Beaulieu et al., 2011).

Wet Flood proofing vs. Dry Flood proofing

In order to keep the water from damaging the buildings and structures there are two main techniques; wet flood proofing and dry flood proofing. In the wet flood proofing the building allows the water to encroach and even enter into the building whereas; in dry flood proofing the building is built in such a manner that the water can't enter into it. Therefore, the dry flood proofing technique helps in such a way that it keeps the water away from the building and doesn't let it affect the building whereas, in the wet flood proofing the water enter into the building but the building is built in such a manner that the water doesn't affect it (Beaulieu et al., 2011).

Active vs. Passive

Active and passive adaptations are two other types of adaptations through which the floods and storms can be stopped from damaging the buildings (Cohen et al., 2011).

Active adaptation is a technique which is used at the time when some warning of a storm or flood is given. In this case the protective barriers are put around the building in order to protect it from the upcoming floods. However, the problems with the active adaptation is that it requires trained men that need to be able to put up the protective barriers at short notice of time. There is also a chance that during the time of flood the place is not occupied and there is no one to put up the protective barriers in which case a lot of damage can be done to the building (Cohen et al., 2011).

Passive adaptation is technique according to which the protective barriers are installed around the building on permanent basis. This helps in ensuring that the building is protected at all times. However, the problem with passive adaptation is that it is expensive and as it is permanent it can change the outlook of the building. Therefore, with regards to the aesthetics of the building, passive adaptation can cause some problems (Cohen et al., 2011).

Salt-resistant building materials

According to ASCE (American Society of Civil Engineers 24-05: Flood Resistant Design and Construction) it is currently a requirement for salt-resistant building materials to be used in the buildings that are in the flood hazard areas. It has been especially mentioned in the document that steel which might come in contact with salt spray, salt water or some other form of corrosive agents has to be hot-dipped galvanized after fabrication (Beaulieu et al., 2011).

Waterproof shields/shutters for doors and windows

The use of the shields and shutters to water proof the windows and the doors is a kind of temporary solution. In this type of adaptation the shields and shutters are put in front of the doors and the windows when a warning regarding an upcoming flood or storm is given. This is a kind of active adaptation as; there is a need of humans who can put the shield in front of the doors and the windows. This technique is very common as, it is being used all over the country and the world as well. In fact, there are many companies now who manufacture these shields of various sizes (Cohen et al., 2011).

The advantages of using this technique are that it is inexpensive and it is not permanent therefore the aesthetics of the building doesn't get affected permanently by the use of this technique. This technique can even be used for the old buildings that were built during a time when the SLR wasn't given much importance to. These shutters have to be placed temporarily therefore; they can be placed immediately before the storm and then taken off (Cohen et al., 2011).

The disadvantages of using this technique are that as, it is an active technique it requires human input to put the shutters on. In case that there isn't anyone to put up the shutters the buildings can suffer from severe flood damage. Also, as this is a temporary method so the shutters and the shields need to be taken off after the storm ends (Cohen et al., 2011).

Increase durability of windows and doors

This is a permanent method in which the windows and doors are made durable to the extent that they can resist the floods and the storms. Therefore, in order to make the doors and windows that strong some specifications have to be met (Cohen et al., 2011).

Presently the most common method of implementing this technique is by locking the doors and the windows with the help of the latches. This helps in building up a watertight seal. The material that is covering the doors and the windows needs to be water resistant as well (Cohen et al., 2011).

There are many advantages of using this technique, such as; this technique can help in establishing more and more buildings that are water proof. Therefore, the damages done by the floods will be greatly reduced. Another great advantage of using this technique is that since it is a permanent method it will help the people in getting rid of the expenses of repairing the damages done to the doors and windows by the floods. The only major disadvantage of using this technique is that it will take a lot of time and expenses to get those doors and windows made at the time that the building will be built (Cohen et al., 2011).

Raise entrances and windows

This is one of the first steps that need to be taken in order to protect the buildings from the floods and the storms. The reason why this is such an effective technique is that the higher the first floor of the building will be the harder it will be for the water to get into the building. Therefore, the buildings will be a lot more protected against the floods and the storms (Cohen et al., 2011).

Raise foundation

When this step is done in the beginning, i.e. when building of a foundation, it is relatively inexpensive. With this step the entrance of the building also gets raised. Therefore, with this step the entrance can be raised as well (Cohen et al., 2011).

The main advantage of this step is that since it will make it difficult for the water to enter the building therefore, the life span of the building increases as well. However, the disadvantage of this step maybe that the ADA might have issues with it and this can also affect the aesthetics of the building (Cohen et al., 2011).

Parking garages below grade or on first floor

This is an adaptation technique that has already being adopted by many countries. Once the garage is build on the grade or the first floor no further action is needed in times of a flood or a storm. Therefore, this is a passive technique (Cohen et al., 2011).

There are many advantages of this technique such as the fact that it is a passive adaptation technique therefore, in case of an emergency no action needs to be taken. It provides the building with extra parking space. In case of a flood the lives of the people don't get in danger. There are a few disadvantages of this technique as well such as, after the flood the water that gets stored in the garage needs to be pumped out. This can become quite costly (Cohen et al., 2011).

Plan for future evacuation of first floor

This technique in which there needs to be a plan made for the evacuation of the first floor for the future is a type of passive technique. In this technique water resistant materials are used on the lower floors of the buildings. In case of flood when the water has risen up to the level of the first floor of the building the water is let into the first floor, after evacuating it (Cohen et al., 2011).