Nixon's detente policy and diplomatic opening to China

Foreign Policy

Nixon's Detente

Description

Detente was a cooling down, or thaw, among America, Russia and China's arms' race (Detente). The United States and Russia could either slow their weapons production or continue the arms race, which, people feared could end in a devastating war (Detente, CNN). Nixon and Henry Kissinger worked secretly on Detente at summit meetings in Beijing and Moscow. President Gerald Ford signed on to Detente in Helsinki in 1975. (CNN, Detente).

President Involved

Richard M. Nixon

Gerald Ford

People involved:

Leonid Brezhnev, Moscow Communist Party Chief, wanted to relax tensions with America (CNN, Detente).

Willy Brandt, West German Chancellor, gave Brezhnev the idea for Detente.

President Richard M. Nixon and National Security Advisor Henry Kissinger were the architects of the United States' plan for Detente.

President Gerald Ford took over the office after Nixon resigned and signed the treaty in 1975.

Foreign Policy

The U.S. Foreign policy of, reduction of arms and building better relations seem to contradict each other.

Event Resolved?

Detente was successful in the long run.

Rate the event: 1. Warlike. 2. Increased Tensions. 3. Neutral. 4. Decreased Tensions. 5. Peaceful.

Nixon's Trip to China 1972

Description

Nixon's trip to China was a step toward dealing with communist countries and opening the doors of communications. Since Mao Tse Tung took China's leadership role in the 1950s, the United States had argued that Taiwan's Nationalist government was representative of all of China. Nixon softened this notion, eased trade and became the first American President to visit Beijing.

President involved

Richard M. Nixon

People involved:

President Richard M. Nixon made the historical visit

Henry Kissinger was responsible for opening the doors to tals with China

Mao Tse Tung, the Chinese leader of godlike status who began to soften his communist views somewhat by the time of Nixon's visit.

Foreign Policy

Nixon's China visit was in-line with the Foreign Policy of building better relationships with communist countries.

Event Resolved?

Nixon's visit was somewhat successful in beginning to build a relationship

Rate the event: 5. Peaceful.

Nixon's Trip to China 1972

Description

SALT I was the treaty signed on May 26, 1972, at the end of the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks in Moscow (SALT I, Wikipedia). The talks took place between the Soviet Union and the United States in order to come to an agreement on arms reduction.

President involved

Richard M. Nixon

People involved:

President Richard M. Nixon participated in the talks

Mao Tse Tung, leader of China who received Nixon into his country.

Foreign Policy

The signing of the SALT I Treaty was in-line with the Foreign Policy of building better relationships with communist countries.

Event Resolved?

SALT I gave way to SALT II and the talks were eventually successful

Rate the event:. 4. Decreased Tensions

Helsinki Accords of 1975

Description group of thirty-five representatives of thirty-five nations signed the Helsinki Accords as an agreement on human rights, in Helsinki, Finland. The Accord outlined fundamental freedoms and the States respect for these rights, regardless of the human's religion, race, sex or language. The Accord also bound nations to promote and encourage civil, political, economic, social and other rights which are part of human dignity. The Accord also recognized the Soviet Border which included the Baltic States (The Helsinki Accords). The third point was that the nations promised cooperation in regards to trade and cultural exchange.. Gerald Ford, Leonid Brezhnev and many other leaders met to sign the Final Act, which included three "baskets." The first declared European borders inviolable, codifying post-World War II European borders established in 1945. The second "basket" promised cooperation in trade and cultural exchange. The third guaranteed respect for fundamental human rights.

President involved

Gerald Ford

People involved:

Major signers of the accord included Gerald Ford, President of the United States and Leonid Breshnev, the Leonid Brezhnev, Moscow Communist Party Chief. The two signed the treaty to further the mission of Detente by creating friendly accords.

Foreign Policy

The Accord is in line with the mission of establishing better relationships between America and communist countries.

Event Resolved?

The event was successful because thirty-five nations signed the agreement.

Rate the event:. 5. Peaceful.

The Mayaguez Incident and Ford's Response

Description

The Mayaguez was a cargo ship that a Cambodian gunboat stopped about 60 miles off the mainland coast of Southeast Asia (about eight miles from Poulo Wai island in the Gulf of Siam. The incident took place a few weeks after the final scene in the Vietname war. Because of the loss of the war, America had lost credibility and President Gerald Ford saw the Mayaguez incident as a means for boosting America's credibility around the world. Gerald Ford decided to challenge the principle of freedom of the sea and free the Mayaguez crew.

President Involved

Gerald Ford

People involved:

President Ford decided to take aggressive action to free the Mayaguez.

General David Jones, Chairman of the Joint Chief of Staff and Secretary James Schlesinger and Henry Kissinger advised President Ford on the matter -- Kissinger wanted strong military action.

Foreign Policy

The actions were consistent with the United States' desire to send a message that such attacks on the seas would not be tolerated.

Event Resolved?

The event was resolved. However, 41 people lost their lives to save the 40 crew members aboard the ship.

Rate the event: 1. Warlike.

The Energy Crisis and OPEC

Description

The energy crisis was a major issue during President Jimmy Carter's presidency. He believed that Americans were far too dependent on foreign oil. In 1977, Carter asked that Americans cut down on oil and gas use, conceived the Department of Energy and brought more than a hundred bills to Congress on energy conservation. These measures resulted in the National Energy Act that placed a tax on gas guzzling tires among other things. By 1979 America's demand for oil had lessened; however, The Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) increased the cost of oil again. This caused a great strain on America's energy resources (Danzer).

President involved

Jimmy Carter

People involved:

President Jimmy Carter - created legislation to punish energy-intense energy users and reward conservationists

Members of OPEC - raised the price of oil

The American people - learned that oil is not a renewable source. The American's also began conserving energy.

Car manufacturers. The automobile industry began designing fuel-efficient cars.

Foreign Policy

Jimmy Carter's reaction regarding the energy crisis helped the United States become less dependent on foreign oil.

Event Resolved?

The event was resolved in some ways, such as the auto industry designing fuel-efficient cars and the price of oil eventually went down.

Rate the event: 3. Neutral..

Carter's Human Rights Policy

Description

Jimmy Carter used his presidency to further the issue of human rights. His foreign policy was one that advocated that other countries be held to the highest standard and that Americans should also adhere to a high standard. His policy led him to cancel America's participation in the 1980 Olympic games, which were held in Moscow, after the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan.

President involved

Jimmy Carter

People involved:

President Jimmy Carter

Foreign Policy

Carter's views on human rights as the issue relates to foreign policy were inconsistent with many foreign-policy actions that he took during his presidency. He aided Indonesia, the Philippines, El Salvador and Iran as their governments were involved in human-rights violations (Cohen).

Event Resolved?

Human Rights' abuses were not resolved.

Rate the event:. 5. Peaceful.

Panama Canal Treaty of 1977

Description

On September 7, 1977 Jimmy Carter signed the treaty that provided that America would give up control of the Panama Canal by the year 2000 and that the Panama Canal guaranteed its neutrality (Panama Canal Treaty).

President Involved

Jimmy Carter

People involved:

President Jimmy Carter signed the treaty

Panamanian Chief of Government Omar Torrijos signed the treaty.

President Nixon began negotiations under pressure by the United Nations Security council.

President Ford stepped up treaty negotiations, only to become deadlocked on issues such as territory for American bases.

Foreign Policy

The Panama Canal treaty helped ease tensions between the United States and Panama that had been festering since 1908.

Event Resolved?

The event was resolved with the signing of the treaty and the United States' eventual withdrawal.

Rate the event: 5. Peaceful.

Description

The primary agreement of the SALT II treaty was to provide equal numbers of strategic nuclear delivery vehicles between the United States and the Soviet Union. The treaty called for a process of reducing of these vehicles and to impose restraints on nuclear developments that might threaten the two nations. The first breakthrough in talks took place in Vladivostok, Russia in 1974. The final agreement was signed in Vienna in 1979.

President Involved

Jimmy Carter

Gerald Ford

Ronald Reagan

People involved:

President Gerald Ford began the process of SALT II.

General Secretary Brezhnev, architect and signer of the agreement.

Secretary Vance, and Soviet Foreign Minister Gromyko attended talks to agree on the Treaty language.

President Jimmy Carter negotiated and signed the agreement; then he asked Congress to delay ratification after the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan..

President Ronald Reagan declared that the Soviet Union had violated the treaty.

Foreign Policy

The treaty was consistent with United States' policy to slow down the arms' race.

Event Resolved?

SALT II was not ratified due to a shift in United States' policy under President Reagan and the Soviet Union's lack of desire to abide by the treaty.

Rate the event:. 2. Increased Tensions. 4

Soviet Invasion and War in Afghanistan

Description

The war took place between 1979-89 in Afghanistan. In 1978 a coup brought in a new Communist government. In 1979 another coup brought in another leader, which caused the Soviet Union to invade and install Hafizullah Amin in December 1979. The Soviets put in Babrak Karmal as president and eventually brought in 100,000 troops. The United States, China and Saudi Arabia supported the Muslims. The Soviets had superior weapons, but the rebels managed to elude the Soviets until Karmal finally resigned in 1986 and Mikhail Gorbachev agreed to withdraw the troops in 1988. By 1989, the Soviets had withdrawn all the troops.

People involved:

The war began under Soviet President Brezhnev. Presidents Chernenko and Andropov inherited the war when they took office.

The bloodiest fighting in Afghanistan took place under Soviet President Mikhail Gorbachev (1985-1986) before he began withdrawing troops.

President Carter, Ford and Reagan were in office during the Soviet war in Afghanistan. All provided aid.

Foreign Policy

The United States' position to aid the Afghan rebels was in line with the foreign policy of the time, which was to contain communism. Prior to the war, the United States supported the Afghan president, Noor Mohammed Tureki. Later the United States shifted its foreign policy saying that the United States would not let anything get in the way of the friendship between America and Afghanistan. Then the State Department said that the United States did business with whoever was in power, whether the government was legitimate or not. These policies under President Carter were all in conflict with each other (Sloan).

Event Resolved?

The event was resolved when the Soviet Union pulled out of Afghanistan without having met its (the Soviet Union) goals. Civil war continued in Afghanistan after the Soviet pull-out; therefore the issue was not resolved.

Rate the event: 1. Warlike.

The Moscow Olympics

Description

The Moscow Summer Olympics in 1980 became a vehicle of protest during the Carter administration. Because the Soviet Union had invaded Afghanistan, Jimmy Carter opted to boycott the American presence at the games.

President Involved

Jimmy Carter

People involved:

Jimmy Carter called for the boycott

American athletes who were forbidden from competing in the games.

Foreign Policy

The boycott was in line with Carter's human-rights policy.

Event Resolved?

The event was resolved after the Olympics took place and American teams did not attend.

Camp David Accord

Description

The 1979 agreement between Egypt and Israel was signed on March 26, 1979 in Washington D.C. The treaty called for Israel's withdrawal from Sinai and Egypt would recognize Israel with full diplomatic relations. Sinai would be demilitarized with the help of the United States (Camp David Accord).

President Involved

Jimmy Carter

People involved:

President Jimmy Carter brokered the deal at Camp David and visited Israel and Egypt just before the treaty was signed

Anwar al-Sadat the Egyption president who signed the Accord

Menachem Begin, the Israeli prime minister who signed the Accord.

Foreign Policy

Carter witnessed the signing that was in line with America's foreign policy to recognize Israel as a State.

Event Resolved?

The demilitarization was successful and completed in 1981.

Rate the event: Decreased Tensions. 5.

Iranian Hostage Crisis

Description

Tensions between the United States and Iran were tense after the overthrow of Muhammad Reza Shah Pahlevi of Iran. When the exiled Shah was admitted to the United States for medical treatment, about 500 students seized the U.S. Embassy in Teheran. Of the 90 people who were at the embassy at the time 55 were held until the end of the crisis. President Carter halted oil and froze Iranian assets in the United States. He also attempted diplomacy. AU.S. led rescue mission was aborted when U.S. helicopters were damaged in a sandstorm and eight people died. On the day of President Ronald Reagan's inauguraton the hostages were released (Iranian Hostage Crisis).

President involved

Jimmy Carter

Ronald Reagan

People involved:

President Jimmy Carter tried in vain to negotiate the hostage release. The crisis was one of the reasons for his re-election defeat.

The exiled Shah of Iran - His coming to the United States sparked the crisis.

Secretary of State Cyrus Vance under Carter opposed the action to rescue the hostages, but resigned when the mission was aborted.

Foreign Policy

The United State Policy in Iran was contrary to Carter's Human Rights' policies, which stated that all humans should be treated with respect.

Event Resolved?

The event was resolved after 444 Days.

Rate the event: 2. Increased Tensions.

The Strategic Defense Initiative

Description

The Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) was a program under the Strategic Defense Initiative Office, an agency of the United States Department of Defense in Washington, D.C.. President Ronald Reagan announced the program on March 23, 1983, which was responsible for research and development of a space-based system. This system would defend the United States from attacks by strategic guided missiles. Critics called the program "Star Wars" (Strategic Defense Initiative).

President Involved

Ronald Reagan

People involved:

President Ronald Reagan pushed the program to the American people and called for cooperation among other agencies to make the program work.

Scientists from the NASA and other space agencies worked on the program.

The Soviet government would have to think twice before launching an attack against the United States.

Foreign Policy

Ronald Reagan's foreign policy adhered to the "peace through Strength" philosophy. SDI was a means to achieve this and was not contradictory.

Event Resolved?

Many of SDI's components were not technically feasible and therefore the program could not be fully implemented. As a result, in the 1990s, SDI was redefined as a proposed defense against limited nuclear missile attacks rather than against a major exchange of nuclear weapons (Strategic Defense Initiative).

Rate the event: 4. Decreased Tensions.

INF Treaty

Description

The INF treaty was a treaty signed in 1987 by President Ronald Reagan and Mikhail Gorbachev as part of a set of negotiations that began in 1982, called Start (Strategic Arms Reduction Talks). The treaty was intended to eliminate intermediate-range nuclear forces (Disarmament, Nuclear: International Agreements).

President involved

Ronald Reagan

People involved:

Mikhail Gorbachev, leader of the Soviet Union and President Ronald Reagan signed the treaty.

President George Bush (Senior) continued the negotiations and agreed to the elimination of most the United States' tactical arms, took strategic bombers off alert status and continued to reduce the amount of ballistic missiles in the United States' arsenal.

Russian President Yeltsin agreed to a START II treaty after the fall of the Soviet Union. The treaty called for reducing the amount of nuclear weapons by two-thirds by 2003.

Foreign Policy

The treaty was in line with Ronald Reagan's policy of peace through strength, while working diplomatically with America's foes.

Event Resolved?

The event was successful until the fall of the Soviet Union when countries such as the Ukraine did not sign onto START for fear of a Russian invasion.

Rate the event:. 4. Decreased Tensions.

Perestroika and Glasnost

Description

Perestroika means restructuring in Russian. Perestroika was Russian President Mikhail Gorbachev's policy in Moscow that hoped to transform the economy of Russia from stagnant and inefficient economy, which was the result of a centralized Soviet Union, into a decentralized and vital one (Perestroika). Glasnost, openness, came about at the same time when Gorbachev began to promote a policy where the public could discuss the Soviet Union's problems at the time, as well as historical problems. Many atrocities were discussed such as the brutality of the Stalin regime and purges such as the Katyn massacre. In promoting Glasnost, Gorbachev and Soviet leaders were more open to the press and to foreign leaders. He hoped that Glasnost would promote Perestroika program (Glasnost).

President involved

Ronald Reagan

People involved:

Russian President Mikhail Gorbachev hoped Perestroika would democratize Russia and that Glasnost would open up communication between Eastern and Western leaders.

The Media received more access to the leaders of the Soviet Union

President Ronald Reagan benefited in a renewal of Detente talks with the U.S.S.R.

Russian industrial managers, local government and party officials were given more autonomy under Perestroika.

Foreign Policy

Though the policies were Soviet, the policy helped further policies under Reagan that hoped to put an end to the Cold War.

Event Resolved?

Perestroika was only partially successful and its implementation thwarted after the failed August Coup of 1991 resulted in a change in the Russian constitution.

Rate the event: 5. Peaceful.

Tiananmen Square

Description

Reagan's support for the contra rebels in Nicaragua was made via a secret arrangement that obtained funds from the sale of arms to Iran. The contras were a group of rebels who were fighting a guerilla war against Nicaragua's Sandinista government. A scandal arose because Congress had enacted legislation, the Boland Amendments, which prohibited the United States' government agency from providing military aid to the contras. Reagan got around law when he went through the National Security Council (NSC). Through the NSC Robert McFarlane and John Poindexter raised private and foreign funds for the contras. NSC staffer Marine Lt. Col. Oliver North planned to secretly ship arms to Iran to obtain funds for the contras, despite a United States trade and arms embargo.

This operation was directed by NSC staffer Marine Lt. Col. Oliver North. McFarlane and North were also the central figures in the plan to secretly ship arms to Iran despite a U.S. trade and arms embargo.

President involved

Ronald Reagan

George Bush (Senior)

People involved:

President Ronald Reagan and Vice President George Bush were implicated in some testimony, yet their actual involvement in the deal is unclear

Lt. Colonel Oliver North and Robert McFarlane helped carry out the mission of selling arms to Iran for the purpose of giving the proceeds to the contras.

Caspar Weinberger, defense secretary under Reaganwas convicted of withholding information from Congress.

President George Bush (senior) pardoned Caspar Weinberger and other implicated in the affair in 1992.

Foreign Policy

The Iran-Contra Affair was the result of two policies under the Reagan administration. To aid the contras and to appease the moderates in the Iranian government as a means of securing the release of American hostages in Lebanon that pro-Iranian groups held. The affair contradicted two foreign policies. The first was that the United States would not help the contras and the other was that the United States had an arms embargo in place against Iran.

Event Resolved?

The event was never fully resolved. The actual deal served its purposes, but the involvement of the parties involved is not known.

Rate the event: 1. Warlike.

The invasion of Grenada came about as a result of Grenada forming a new government under Maurice Bishop in 1979. The United States feared that Bishop presented a threat and that his leadership might turn Grenada into another Cuba. The series of events of coups and demands from the public led to the leftist Bernard Coard taking control and lining up Maurice Bishop and his cabinet and killing them at Fort Rupert in Downtown St. Georges. In October of 1983, the United States invaded Grenada at the request of Grenada's Carribbean neighbors..

Ronald Reagan ordered the invasion of Grenada

Eric Matthew Gairy was president of Grenada from the 1950s until the coup in 1979.

Bernard Coard helped Maurice Bishop overthrow Eric Matthew Gairy. Later he turned against Bishop.

Governor-General, Sir Paul Scoon took the interim leadership position and organized elections for a new government.

Foreign Policy

President Reagan wanted to remove any Soviet or communist presence in the western world, including Nicaragua and Cuba. The invasion was consistent with Ronald Reagan's desire to keep Communism from spreading.

Event Resolved?

The event was resolved. The United States successfully ousted the government, installed an interim regime headed by Governor-General, Sir Paul Scoon, who also organized elections for a new government.

Rate the event: 1. Warlike. 4

The Persian Gulf War - Operation Desert Storm

Description

Saddam Hussein, the president of Iraq, invaded Kuwait the world took notice. Afraid that his actions might be the beginning of a plan to conquer other Middle Eastern countries, President George Bush (senior) demanded that Saddam Hussein's retreat from Kuwait immediately. After several warnings, President Bush gave the orders to the U.S. military to remove Saddam Hussein by force. Before acting, President Bush went to the United Nations for support and it was granted for removing Hussein's army from Kuwait; however, the United Nations did not support the idea of removing Hussein from power in Iraq.

President involved

George Bush (senior)

People involved:

President George Bush (Senior) gave the orders to remove Saddam Hussein from Kuwait by force.

Saddam Hussein invaded his neighbor Kuwait, with the intention of taking over the government.

General Norman Schwarzkopf led the U.S. military invasion.

Foreign Policy

George Bush's decision to remove Saddam Hussein from Kuwait was in line with U.S. foreign policy that countries that have the intent to dominate and take over other countries would not be tolerated.

Event Resolved?

The event was resolved according to the United Nations' mandate that Kuwait be liberated. However, by not removing Saddam Hussein from power the United States' problem with Iraq was not adequately addressed.

Rate the event: 1. Warlike. 2