Conversation Along the Past Recent

¶ … Conversation Along the past recent decades, economic entities have suffered numerous mutations in the way they approach business partners, satisfy the customer, increase corporate profits or treat the employees. In the same time, their expectations have significantly increased. Most of the employers strive to offer an increased employee on the job satisfaction, but in return, they demand that the staff members increase their performances in sustaining the organization reach its overall objectives.

Managements have developed and implemented numerous strategies to monitor and control the human resource, one of the most relevant such methodologies being the discourse analysis. Discourse Analysis In terms of historical terminology, the word discourse derives from the Latin discursus, which means conversation or speech. Along the decades however, the understanding of the word has evolved to incorporate more forms of communication. The discourse analysis defines numerous approaches to studying human interactions in terms of communications.

Along the years, it has been offered various definitions and has been implemented with a multitude of usages. A presentation of the most relevant definitions is given below: M. Stubs (1983): "The term discourse analysis is very ambiguous. I will use it in this book to refer mainly to the linguistic analysis of naturally occurring connected spoken or written discourse.

Roughly speaking, it refers to attempts to study the organization of language above the sentence or above the clause, and therefore to study larger linguistic units, such as conversational exchange or written texts. It follows that discourse analysis is also concerned with language in use in social contexts, and in particular with interaction or dialogue between speakers." M. Chimombo and R.L. Roseberry (1998): "Analysis of discourse is a methodology for examining texts and the communicative process that gives rise to them.

Its primary purpose is to enable discourse analysts to gain a deeper understanding and appreciation of texts." D. Crystal (1992): The discourse analysis is the study of "a continuous stretch of (especially spoken) language larger than a sentence, often constituting a coherent unit such as a sermon, argument, joke, or narrative." K.

Wisniewski (2006) "Discourse analysis is a primarily linguistic study examining the use of language by its native population whose major concern is investigating language functions along with its forms, produced both orally and in writing." Otherwise put, the discourse analysis is the "branch of applied linguistics dealing with the examination of discourse (which) attempts to find patterns in communicative products as well as and their correlation with the circumstances in which they occur, which are not explainable at the grammatical level" G.

Ward (1997): "A discourse is an abstract public sphere of words and images. [...] Discourse analysis has its roots in linguistics, literary studies, and anthropology." M.J. Terre Blanche and K. Durrheim (1999): "Discourse analysis is a qualitative research design." L. Zeeman, M. Poggenpoel, C. Myburgh, and N. Van Der Linde (2002): "Discourse analysis is a reflexive process that aims to provide an account of how 'objects' in the world are constructed against a back ground of socially shared understandings. These socially shared understandings often have become institutionalized and gained factual status.

It is a form of social critique." In order for a written or spoken information to be considered discourse, it has to meet the following seven criteria: Cohesion, meaning that the grammatical relationship between the parts of a sentence is vital for its interpretation Coherence, implying that the sentences must flow in a logical manner that gives sense to the argument Intentionality, meaning that the writer or speaker must deliver the message in manner that is deliberate and conscious Acceptability, meaning that the audience must approve the communicative product Informativeness, meaning that the speaker or writer cannot simply restate previous ideas, but he must introduce new pieces of information Situationality, implying that the information delivered is relevant in a certain context Intertextuality, meaning that the information communicated refers or is also relevant to the outside world (Beaugrande, 1981) In a more simplistic formulation, based on the above presented statements, the discourse analysis, or the conversational analysis, represents the study of various forms of communication in a way that goes beyond syntax or grammatical correctness and looks beyond the actual words to see what the speaker or writer is in fact trying to communicate.

3. Discourse Analysis and Employee Focus The conversational analysis has a multitude of applications in the business community, one of the most relevant of these applications being the analysis of the focus employees have on customer satisfaction. In other words, by listening to the pre-recorded phone calls between company agents and clients, the organizations are able to evaluate the attention employees offer to the satisfaction of their clients.

Foremost, this also helps in identifying how the staff members manage to understand and implement the corporate culture relative to the treatment and satisfaction of the customers. A primary specification to be made relative to the connection between corporate employees and customer focus is that this can often vary based on the spiritual state of the employee. Otherwise put, the performances of the company agents can be influenced by the feelings they encounter at a respective moment.

Say for instance that an employee is depressed and sad; his focus on satisfying the customer could be limited. If on the other had the employee is happy, he will better strive to focus on the customer and satisfy his needs. As a result then, it has been observed that the emotional state does not only influence the employee himself, but also the persons with whom he comes into contact (Coupland, 2001).

Discourse analyses have also revealed a direct connection between the personal identity of the employee and his job related performances. The identity of the individual can best be observed through an analysis of the employee's behavior and the remarks he makes of himself. "This enables a focus on how these assumptions function in talk, that is to blame, justify or legitimise an account. Talk about the self is located in conventions of discourse, which are embedded in wider concerns" (Coupland, 2001).

The results have been retrieved through the implementation of the discourse analysis and have been based on the listening of the recorded phone conversations between employees and customers. The tone of the agent and his remarks are often sufficient to shed some light into his emotions, which can then be linked to his focus on the full satisfaction of the customers' needs and wants. Discourse analysis's main aim is usually to show the connection between discursive practices and broader social and cultural developments and structures.

The underlying premise is often that discursive practices both mirror and actively contribute to social and cultural change" (Roskilde Universitetscenter). Through a generalization of this statement, it could be said that the discourse analysis of the agents in the call center can materialize in changing effects upon the business community. In other words, through a carefully developed and implemented conversational analysis, the managers at the organization can retrieve numerous relevant conclusions, and implement various strategic approaches to resolving the identified problems.

This would ultimately materialize in a change within the company's microenvironment, obvious in an increased customer focus, a better client satisfaction, a better market consolidation of the organization and increased corporate profits. The effects of the impending change would not only be suffered by the organization implementing the discourse analysis, but also by its stakeholders. The shareholders would be significantly better satisfied as their dividends would increase, and the competing organizations would have to implement better strategies.

The employees would also gain a comparative advantage in the meaning that they would come to realize their limitations and would also be given the chance to overcome them. Therefore, moreover since the actual costs of implementing discourse analysis are quite limited, the procedure stands increased chances of retrieving results that support the future personal and professional development of the staff members (the University of Texas, School of Information). The success of the implemented discourse analysis would however depend on a multitude of forces.

Since the study of communication patterns is not an exact science, mistakes in increasing employee focus could be generated by personal interpretations. To better understand, a manager might see a problem where there in fact isn't one. His suggested strategies for improvement then could have negative impacts and further decrease the attention agents place on the customer satisfaction. "Discourse Analysis and critical thinking is applicable to every situation and every subject. The new perspective provided by discourse analysis allows personal growth and a high level of creative fulfilment.

No technology or funds are necessary and authoritative discourse analysis can lead to fundamental changes in the practices of an institution, the profession, and society as a whole. However, Discourse Analysis does not provide definite answers; it is not a "hard" science, but an insight/knowledge based on continuous debate and argumentation" (the University of Texas, School of Information). The employees analysed through discourse methods are often aimed to offer information to the corporate clients.

The analysis then is aimed to identify how well they are able to deliver this information. In this instance then, the face and politeness phenomena become of crucial importance. Since the conversations in phone call centers are not conducted face-to-face, the most important aspect becomes the politeness (Stembrouck, 2006). This is vital for complete customer satisfaction and can be identified and corrected through discourse analyses.

All in all, the employees at the call center have the ultimate purpose of transferring data to the customers in a way that is both polite and informative. The discourse analysis conducted on the pre-recorded phone calls is a useful means of monitoring the communication between employee and customer. It allows the corporate management to identify any shortages in communication, resulting in customer dissatisfaction. The conversational analysis is a helpful approach to identifying internal problems and resolving them in a way that increases customer satisfaction and organizational revenues. 4.

Types of Discourse Analyses and their Applications As established in the previous pages, it is quite difficult to offer a generally accepted definition of the discourse analysis. Similarly, it is quite difficult to achieve a clear delimitation of the adherent types of conversational analysis. However, a particular type could be defined as a class of written or spoken communication, which is easily understood and perceived once it is recognized and which aims to produce potential responses (Cook, 1990).

The most relevant types of discourse are given by the manner in which information is being communicated, that is written or spoken. Subsequently, the most relevant types of discourse analysis are spoken language analysis and the analysis of the written texts. 4.1 Written and Spoken Discourse The most obvious difference between the two types of discourse is the actual form of communication and the manners in which the pieces of information are being delivered.

While the spoken communication only implies the verbalization of the data into thin air, the written discourse implies putting the data on hard support, such as paper or electronic devices. This situation is probably the most relevant materialization of the Latin proverb Verba Volent, Scripta Manent, or Spoken words blow with the wind - but what is written will remain (Pliny the Librarian, 2005). Another difference between the two types of discourse is that while spoken communication is sometimes based on impulse, written discourse is more calculated.

Then, with the spoken communication, the body language interferes, and gestures or pauses could be interpreted in various manners. Then, since the speaker is often familiar with the audience, he can support his ideas with gestures or the usage of slang vocabulary. This does not occur in written communications. However, written discourse has the advantage that it can use formulas, tables or other such techniques to better communicate the thought to the recipients (Crystal, 1995).

The two types however are no as straightforward as one could expect, and they get often combined. The most relevant example in this sense is given by Kamil Wisniewski (2006). He presents the instance of a teacher giving a lecture and helping his communication by writing pieces of information of the blackboard. Then, there is also the example of a student preparing notes for a speech he is to give in front of his class mates. Both instances reveal the mixture of written and spoken discourses and their dual applications.

Spoken Language Analysis The analysis of spoken discourse first commenced at the University of Birmingham and was based on the teacher - student interactions. The scholars then took one step ahead and generalized the results. The analysis revealed that there are common features present in most communities, such as the signals used to commence or end a verbal communication. Politeness and framing are also analyzed in spoken communications and they reveal the nature of the discourse and the time each speaker can take turn in presenting their thoughts (Wisniewski, 2006).

The application of spoken language analysis is extremely wide and present in all societies and social groups. In the educational context for instance, students listen to the teacher and take turns in posing or answering questions. In the business community, namely the call center organization, the analysis of the verbal discourse allows managers to identify how the employees treat and respond to the needs of customers.

The particular consequence of this application is that the leaders of the organization will be better able to develop and implement strategies that improve the communication with the corporate clients. Written Text Analysis The analysis of written discourse is based on more evidence, can retrieve more complex results and is therefore of interest to wider scholars, not just linguists. Each analyst of written texts looks for the information that is vital for him and interprets this information in the desired context.

An English teacher will for instance asses the grammatical correctness of a paper, whereas a human resource manager will place increased emphasis on the strategies that increase employee performance. As a result, it can then be said that the applications of the written texts analysis are extremely wide and present in all social groups, with various applications from basic learning to professional formation. 4.2 Form-Function and Language-Context Analysis primary aim of any discourse analysis is to identify the actual meaning of the information delivered by the speaker or the writer.

In terms of meaning then, there are two types of analyses. The first of them is based on the identification of the general correlations between structure (form) and meaning (function). The second type of analysis is centred on the identification of more specific interactions between language and context (Gee, 2005) Form-Function Form in understood, from a linguistic standpoint, as any structural aspect of a sentence, such as verb, a noun, a type of clause used or various types of phrases used in the formation of a sentence.

In terms of function, this refers to the meaning a form can generate upon the readers or the listeners. In other words, linguists implement this particular type of discourse analysis to identify the function each form is expected to meet. At a fundamental level, all types of discourse analysis involve form-function matching. Of course, different approaches to discourse analysis have different view-points on how to talk about form and function.

For instance, some approaches have an expanded notion of form in which not only grammatical and cross-sentence patters are considered, but, also, things like pausing, repetitions, repairs, eye-gaze, speech rate, and timing of turn taking. Each of these are, in turn, related to various functions they serve in interaction" (Gee, 2005) particular application of the form-function analysis can be revealed within the call center of a for-profit organization.

Given that the interaction between employee and customer is achieved via telephone, the eye contact or other features of the body language are rather irrelevant. The tone of the conversation, the amounts of information contained in the discussion and the politeness of the call center agent are all features revealing the potential outcome of the operations. Language-Context Analysis discourse can also be analysed from the standpoint of language and context. This basically implies that the information is being delivered in a certain context that influences the discourse.

The context can refer to features such as the language used, persons present, the knowledge and beliefs of the people listening or reading the discourse, the social relationship of these people, "and their ethnic, gendered, and sexual identities, as well as cultural, historical, and institutional factors" (Gee, 2005). The aim of this type of analysis then is to study the discourse in terms of language and context in order to identify the type of communication and the relationship between the parties involved in the discourse.

The most relevant example in this sense refers to the analysis's ability to differentiate between formal and informal discourses. The formal discourse reveals a wide vocabulary and the usage of words deriving from Latin. It also revolves around presenting the information delivered in a literary way as to generate an effect upon the audience. Formal discourse is stricter and makes use of the passive voice, rather than the active voice.

The informal discourses are governed by fewer regulations; they can present slang vocabulary, references to the first person, personal feelings and beliefs and generally use the active voice (Wisniewski, 2006). Whichever the type of analysis implemented by an institution, the study of discourses has three ultimate applications: it teaches grammar, it teaches vocabulary and it teaches text interpretations (Wisniewski, 2006). These three features are vital for the success of any individual, but also for the ultimate success of corporate entities.

In this particular instance then, organizations implement discourse analyses to identify any communication problems their employees might encounter. They then search for alternative methods to resolving the shortcomings and transforming them into organizational strengths that increase employee performances, customer satisfaction and consequently organizational revenues. 5. Importance of Customer Centricity As revealed above, discourse analysis finds a relevant meaning in the context of the business operations. Among its business application, a most important one is that it helps increase customer centricity.

Customer centricity refers to the business approach implemented by companies, during which they focus on the full satisfaction of their customers' needs and wants, in the detriment of the internal forces that might drive the corporate operations, such as the registration of short-term profits or the immediate reduction in corporate expenditures. This feature is becoming omnipresent in the contemporaneous economic community and it basically refers to a process of decades which turned the organizational focus from production to customer satisfaction.

This basically means that organizations no longer manufacture items which they then place onto the market and hope to sell them, but they first prospect the market to identify new needs and wants and then manufacture products that aim to satisfy the identified demands. In this increasingly customer-driven environment, the call for a customer-centric capability rings out loud and clear. As the expectations and requirements of the customer become more pronounced and complex, the casual customer-focused behaviors of the past grind toward a forced obsolescence.

What was once an option is now an imperative" (Galbraith, 2005). The customer centred organizations is in many ways better than the product centred entity.

The most relevant pieces of evidence in this meaning are presented in the comparative table below (Galbraith, 2005): Product-Centric Organization Customer-Centric Organization best product for customers new products most advanced customer portfolio of products price to market strategy aims an increased market share greater emphasis on the staff members in the manufacturing department best solution for customers customized products, additional and complementary services most profitable and loyal customer portfolio of customers price to value and risk strategy aims an increased customer satisfaction and through this, retention greater emphasis on the staff members in the marketing department In a nutshell, the product-oriented organization strives to integrate the latest technological advancements into their manufacturing operations in order to develop a highly specialized item.

The customer-oriented organization on the other hand strives to combine various techniques and products in a way that increases customer satisfaction. Researches conducted along the years indicate that customer-centricity is still quite reduced within economic entities. In this order of ideas, an estimated 50 up to 70% of all organizational efforts do "not add value to what the organisation achieves for its customers. Such a lack of focus can be intensely frustrating for customers and highly damaging to actual service delivery and business performance" (Charteris, 2008).

In this order of ideas then, it becomes obvious that a focus on clients is vital for their satisfaction, sustained purchases of the company's products and services and ultimately, corporate revenues. The benefits of implementing a customer-centric approach would manifest in two different directions, both vital for sustained and continued organizational growth. The first of these directions is an increase in corporate revenues and the second is a sustainable reduction in organizational expenditures.

Increases in corporate revenues would be sustained through the following results: better-defined set of products and services by customer group Simpler and more efficient service for the customer - including a more satisfying customer experience across multiple access channels -- " to increased loyalty and profitability Greater ability and agility to react to market change and be ahead of the market" (Charteris, 2008) The sustainable reduction in organizational costs would become obvious due to the following: More efficient processes (less non-value-add activity) with clearer roles and responsibilities and better communication Reduced costs in dealing with customers, including simpler, better-integrated and more standardised technology that adds value to what you offer your customers Improved job satisfaction and staff performance Reduced staff churn from better recruitment, informed by well-defined skills and capabilities Knowledge transfer into the client organisation so that the IP and benefits are reusable" (Charteris, 2008) In order to best adapt to the new requirements in the markets and the industries, organizations must add more value to the customer base, which is already the central part of their operations.

Foremost, the success of this strategic approach is based on the clear understanding that the customers do not want products, but help and assistance (Bielski, 2000). In other words, the business community offers the clients a wide array of products and services. The offering has mutated along the years to now encompass numerous features, which are often similar. As a result, most competing products and services reveal the same characteristics.

As it then becomes more and more difficult to differentiate through product strategies, organizations must achieve diversification from the way they attract, treat and retain the customer. All these are vital for business success as they ensure the gaining of comparative advantages relative to the competition; a better consolidated position onto the market and increased corporate sales. Directly linked to a corporate culture based on the full satisfaction of the customers' needs and wants is the attention offered to the employees' on the job satisfaction.

The two concepts are often related as one is not possible without the other. More and more organizations implement the idea of offering full commitment to their customers. But this cannot be achieved if the corporate employees are not entirely dedicated to the overall cause. To achieve this then, economic entities must develop and implement corporate cultures focused on both employees and customers.

In terms of staff members, the process would eventually materialize in more loyal employees, reduced employee turnover rates, a unification of the workers' individual goals with the overall corporate goals and continued support in sustaining the entity reach its overall goals. Also, since the employee turnover would decrease, the costs of replacing the human resource would decrease significantly. In the end, the more dedicated staff members would offer superior services to the customers, managing as such to increase customer satisfaction, number of purchases and consequently corporate revenues.

The correlation between the customer and the human resource strategies is an innovation within the business community and it is based on having fun while being the best; learning from changes and challenges; acting with respect, humility and integrity and finally, unleashing the power to the people, meaning the employees. "Moving to customer-centricity is as much a human endeavour as a strategic endeavour. Customer-centric capabilities will be the basis for all future growth, not only incremental store improvement. As a result, a new human capital philosophy has been adapted to: 1.

Recognize the unique talents of each employee, and deploy those talents in a manner that maximizes the employee's energy to drive business outcomes. 2. Reengineer the talent system (selection, performance management, rewards, development), and develop other HR capabilities for personalization vs. sameness. 3. Focus HR on strategic differentiation -- transformational company change vs. support. 4. Assume a leadership role in the transformation of the business" (Stopper, 2006) Ultimately, the need for increased customer-centricity is determined by the recent changes in the micro and macro environments.

In ordered to keep up with the forces of globalization, increased customer opportunities and demands, market liberalization and increased competition, organizations have to adapt along. In other words, they reveal the necessity that "companies not be tied to their past structures, to the detriment of their existing needs" (Galbraith, 2005). Managing to implement these concepts, the organizations will be better able to sustain organizational growth.

And foremost, they will create a comparative net advantage that will differentiate them from the competition as they will be better able to offer and sustain customer satisfaction. "This culture (the customer-centric organization) is dedicated to winning and keeping customers by creating and delivering value better than competitors. [...] in a customer centric-culture you would expect resources to be allocated where they best enhance customer value, reward systems to promote employee behaviors that enhance customer satisfaction, and customer information to be collected, shared and applied across the business.

You would also expect to find the heroes of the business to be those who deliver outstanding value or service to customers" (Buttle, 2003). The emergence of the customer-oriented organization is a feature of the contemporaneous society, which modifies at a rapid pace and forces economic entities to adapt along. Its implementation poses several risks, but if properly handled, can easily sustain corporate success, moreover when "there is evidence that customer-centricity correlates strongly with business performance" (Buttle, 2003). 6.

Discourse Analysis and Call Center Activities In more recent years, several organizations which are engaged in continuous communications with their customers have implemented discourse analysis as a means to monitoring the activities in their phone call centers. This basically implies that managers listen to the pre-recorded conversations between the company employees and the customers and identify the relationship established and the nature and quality of the interaction. Based on their findings, the executives propose solutions to the identified problems and develop strategies to be implemented.

As a result, they hope to achieve a significant improvement in the company-customer communication. The.