Urban air pollution's health effects and reduction strategies

Urban Environmental Air Pollution

Urban Environmental Issue: Air Pollution and How to Combat It

Because of the significant level of urbanization in many parts of the country, the natural landscape has been changed. This has contributed to pollution of the ecosystem, much of which is magnified within the urban environment by the inability for the pollutants to readily and easily escape the population-dense areas in the same way they could in more open, accessible environments. When one compares environmental impact and population distribution, it is not difficult to see that there are serious concerns for the environment in areas where there are more people.

That is worth noting, because pollution of the environment, and specifically the air in that environment, is not just about the damage that can be done to the ecosystem. It is also about damage that occurs to the living things within that ecosystem -- including the human beings who are breathing stagnant, stale, polluted air in an urban environment. While much of this pollution is caused by their own making, there are ways in which the air pollution of urban environments can be reduced. Finding ways to reduce air pollution in urban areas can save lives, lower the number of people battling chronic conditions, and lessen the burden on the health care system and the planet.

Defining Urban Air Pollution

Plants, animals, and people all need oxygen to live, but they are getting much more than just oxygen and other gases in the air they breathe. That is especially true in urban areas, because the pollution in those settings puts unhealthy substances into the air. Acid rain, smog, and other environmental problems start to occur, and people have to breathe that in because they need the air in order to survive. Additionally, most of them probably do not think that much about what is in the air they are breathing. Unfortunately, that lack of interest in what is in the air people are breathing has contributed to pollution because people who do not pay attention to what is in their air also do not take the time to fight for cleaner air and require regulation of companies that pollute and cause contamination such as greenhouse gases (Raven, 2008).

With the hole in the ozone layer, greenhouse gases, vehicle emissions, and other types of pollution, people in urban areas are often breathing in a toxic stew of particulates and chemicals that can make them very sick over time or even cause them to die prematurely. According to Raven (2008), there are several different kinds of air-polluting elements, including carbon oxides, sulfur oxides, hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides, and ozone, as well as other air toxins. Soot, dust, oil, asbestos, and nitrogen sulfides are all found in the air in urban environments, due to human creation and the combinations seen from other gases and particulates that find their way to one another in the air in urban communities (Raven, 2008).

It would not be fair to say that human beings account for one hundred percent of the creation of urban air pollution, but it would be fair to say that humans either cause or exacerbate nearly one hundred percent of the pollution in urban settings. Humans either cause pollution directly, or they indirectly make lower grades of pollution worse because of what they are putting into the air that bonds with those lower level pollutants (Raven, 2008).

The Major Pollutants and Their Causes

There are three things that contribute to air pollution: natural elements, human elements, and chemical compounds. While air pollution dates all the way back to the Roman Empire, it has certainly increased throughout time, and the results of that increase are being seen much more often in urban areas than anywhere else (Truffer, et al., 2003). The average person will breathe in 20,000 liters of air on a normal day, and with each breath, he or she is pulling dangerous elements that are present into the atmosphere into his or her lungs (Truffer, et al., 2003). This can be seen as a global crisis, with urban areas all over the world as the epicenters of the epidemic, and both indoor and outdoor air being part of the problem (Truffer, et al., 2003). In order to better understand the issues that the world is facing with the current level of air pollution in urban areas, it is necessary to address what goes into pollution and how the different things that cause pollution are controlled. There are some areas over which more control can be exercised than others.

For example, natural elements cannot easily be removed from air, especially in a large urban area and outdoors. There are air purifiers that can be used indoors, such as HEPA filters and other types of filtration options, but these are not always successful in removing everything from the air (Truffer, et al., 2003). Some types of particles and other pollutants are simply too small to get rid of, as they pass through even the best of filters. On an outdoor level, there are no filters that can be used to remove naturally occurring elements from the air that is breathed. Human elements and chemical compounds provide more opportunities for governance, of course, because they are more easily identified. If human beings are polluting the air, they can be made to stop or to reduce their level of pollution in some cases, since they have control over whether they are creating pollution with their activities.

Modes of Governance

There are a number of disastrous effects of air pollution, but there are ways to mitigate these effects and avert the crisis that may be coming as urban areas see ever-increasing pollution levels. Scientists, environmentalists, and governments are currently testing a number of methods that will work to eliminate air pollution in urban settings (U.S., 2009). There are two basic types of controls when it comes to air pollution. These are output control and input control (Evans, 2012). Controlling the input is often easier and less expensive for both the governments and the companies and industries that cause the largest amounts of pollution (Evans, 2012). The taxpayers also generally prefer input controls for pollution, because it means fewer tax dollars going to the issue and more being accomplished with the tax dollars that are sent to keep pollution under control in urban environments (Evans, 2012). That does not mean that output controls should not be used, however, as they can and do make more sense in some specific circumstances.

When input control is used, the problem that could lead to pollution is averted prior to it actually occurring, and this also helps to lessen any aftereffects that could be seen. There are five chief controls for input when it comes to pollution and these are population control, an increase in energy efficiency, a lower consumption of energy, less waste, and a move to more viable forms of energy production, such as renewables (Evans, 2012). In urban areas, vehicle pollution is one of the main problems, and when it is lessened there can be a significant effect seen on the health of the people who live in that area (Evans, 2012). The more pollution is controlled and stopped before it can get started, the better off people will be when it comes to handling the potentially devastating effects of that pollution. Additionally, they will save more money over the utilization of output control.

Networks

Networks are one of the best modes of governance for pollution control (Evans, 2012). These are designed on a number of scales, and the organizations and individuals that belong to these networks follow guidelines and help to hold one another accountable (Keller, 2010). They can be local, regional, national, or even international in nature, and they can allow for a high level of value when it comes to making sure they are avoiding and/or mitigating pollution as much as possible (Keller, 2010). While networks are not a perfect solution to issues such as urban air pollution, they can certainly help affect change and encourage cities and even specific organizations to literally and figuratively clean up their acts in order to protect the people who live in urban areas. If even a few organizations dedicate themselves to reducing pollution in the city or town in which they are based, a substantial difference could be seen in the air pollution levels in that setting (Keller, 2010).

However, one of the ways in which networks are not effective is in the fact that individuals generally do not join them and often do not even know of their existence (Keller, 2010). In other words, the person who is driving his or her car to work instead of taking public transportation may decide he or she no longer wants to do that in an effort to protect the environment, but it is unlikely that the person in that scenario would join any type of formal network on a large enough scale to affect pollution levels within the city (Keller, 2010). People doing their part is important, though, despite the fact that individuals generally do not see significant gain from making changes in the level of air pollution to which they contribute. If enough people were committed to reducing pollution, though, they could form a network of individuals in their city or town and perhaps make a difference, over time, in the level of air pollution seen there.

Markets

The idea of market-based instruments is a type of governance that is very different from what is typically seen with a network. The laws that are in effect are environmental ones, and they focus on issues such as price and economic factors (Keller, 2010). The idea behind these kinds of laws and guidelines is to create and provide incentives to the population when they make choices that avoid pollution (Mba, 2004). The laws show the cost of production based on creating something that would cause pollution as a byproduct, and provide lower costs for production if a lower level of pollution (or none at all) is created. This helps companies make the decision to mitigate the level of pollution they are putting into the atmosphere, and also provides them a financial incentive to do so. That is a winning proposition for the company and for the people who live and work in the urban area where that company is located. Governments and regulatory bodies also benefit.

This method of governance seems as though it would be the best choice, but it does have a downside. It is extremely expensive to create and maintain, because it is essentially paying big companies not to pollute (Keller, 2010). The changes many of these companies must make to their operations in order to reduce pollution to more acceptable levels can be very costly, so the payments or other incentives they receive from the government or other regulatory body have to reflect that (Scholz & Stiftel, 2005). There are three methods that are used to help manipulate companies into using methods that create less pollution. These are taxes, charges on emissions, and permits in the market (Keller, 2010). Governments that set up tax breaks for companies that do not pollute can find that they are reducing emissions because companies want the break on their taxes. They can also provide these same companies with benchmarks to meet for emissions. Companies that are successful will save even more.

Transition Management

Transition management is one of the most important ways to reduce air pollution in urban areas, but it does take time in order for it to be successful. It is a contrast to many of the other ways a governmental entity would attempt to get companies and even individuals to reduce their levels of pollution. Essentially, the biggest concern in this particular type of governance is to direct a gradual process that looks at transforming the political, social, and technical landscapes of society with respect to its overall character (Harris, 2004). The idea is to lessen the issues society has that cause it to create air pollution, and create a more favorable outcome for the entire society as a whole. There are a number of stakeholders in this particular endeavor, and utilizing what they have to offer can help the transition be as smooth as possible. Additionally, the shared goals and visions can be excellent choices for cities and other urban areas where a high level of pollution is being seen and where there are many things that can be done in order to make sure less pollution is created in the future (Hughes, 2007).

While this type of transition takes time, the changes are often more lasting because of the ways in which they have been created and implemented. The importance of transition management lies in its participation, though. If there are a number of companies and individuals who do not participate in the transition, it can be much more difficult to see any degree of success (Harris, 2004). That is something that has to be carefully noted, because a long-term perspective for society is only successful if the majority of society embraces the transition and keeps moving forward with it over the long-term. Not doing that can mean that the transition is essentially pointless, and that it will not be of value to the city or other urban area where air pollution reduction has been deemed important (Harris, 2004). The more society values the change, the more likely it will be to take place.

Adaptive Governance

Adaptive governance is based on the changes that are required in order to keep the goal of lower air pollution as a focus of governmental entities, organizations, and individuals. In other words, new strategies have to be created and changed based on sustainable development of tactics that could help urban areas be more successful in their reduction of air pollution (Rangarajan, 2007). If there is no willingness on the part of governing bodies to adapt to changing conditions, attitudes, and beliefs, it can be very difficult for those governing bodies to have any success in long-term modification of laws and regulations that affect the level of air pollution in an urban area. The United Nations adopted this strategy with its focus on environmental causes, because it understood the value that had to be considered when it came to successful change on a large scale. While some change in policies that will lead to lower levels of air pollution is certainly better than no change at all, the more that can be done to avoid pollution and reduce it in urban areas, the more people can avoid serious illness (Hilgencamp, 2005).

High levels of enforcement such as those that are needed nationally are very important when it comes to adaptive governance, but it can also be used on a smaller scale in an effort to encourage companies and individuals to also adapt in ways that will help them lead better lives that are healthier and that offer less pollution to the air around them (Webster, 2009). In short, everyone from the highest governing body to the single citizen wondering what he or she can do in order to help with the problem or air pollution in urban areas must be ready and willing to adapt. There are many people and companies that are not interested in adapting to any new regulations, but they are harming themselves and the people around them because they are failing to reduce the levels of pollution that they are creating and placing into the air all around them.

Conclusion

All citizens of a country are stakeholders in the health and well-being of that country's environment, and for those who live in urban areas, the stakes are higher when it comes to air pollution. They are affected by those who make policies, and by the attitudes of those individuals as well as the ways in which they enforce (or do not enforce) compliance. Additionally, there are things that each, individual person can do in an effort to make his or her pollution "footprint" a bit smaller. In urban areas, a reduction in pollution could be helped along by more people taking mass transit. Strong restrictions on factories and specific types of industry in city limits could also help to reduce pollution. There are no easy or inexpensive solutions to the problem, but it is clear that more needs to be done in order to make sure that the people who live in urban areas can avoid air pollution and live lives that are healthier and longer, without the development of chronic health problems related to the air they breathe.