Computer Assisted Language Learning

Computer Assisted Language Learning or CALL, relates to the creation, use, and study of software that is specifically designed to allow for the use of a computer in the teaching and learning of a new language (Jarvis, 2013). Most commonly this is done for people learning English, but it can, theoretically, be used for any language learning process. There are a wide range of communication and information technologies that are embraced by CALL, as well, because approaches and applications that address teaching and learning of foreign languages are changing (Davies, 2002).

The drill and practice methods that were so common in the 1960s and 1970s have been amended to provide a more interactive environment and a better opportunity for people to learn what they need to know in order to speak, read, and write another language more easily and more fluently (Jarvis, 2013). The philosophy that CALL currently employs has a strong focus on materials that are student-centred and that encourage people to work on their own (Marriott, Torres, & Lupion, 2009).

Some of these materials are very structured in nature, and others are much less structured. However, both options provide both individualised and interactive learning options. When CALL is used properly, it is an excellent tool to help teachers make the language learning process faster and easier, so students can see more success (Egbert, 2005).

It works well as a reinforcement tool to help students remember and expand upon what they have learned in the classroom, and it is also very effective at ensuring that students who need remedial help are offered that help so they are able to catch up to their peers and continue to learn a second language (Jarvis, 2013). By focusing on the methodology and pedagogy of language learning, CALL can help students move forward and can provide them with different and valuable ways to learn.

All too often, CALL is narrowly perceived as being an approach to learning and teaching a language where a computer is used as a presentation aide, as reinforcement of what has already been learned, and as an assessment of the learning of the material (Jarvis, 2013).

However, the value of CALL is much more than that, and the encompassing of the study of applications for the use of computers in language learning and the search for more of them is an important consideration when understanding what all CALL can really offer (Levy & Stockwell, 2006).

The majority of teachers who use CALL today, and those who study and continue to develop it for teaching and learning applications, agree with the more comprehensive view of what it is, what it does, and all that it can offer to those who teach and those who want to learn. In order to really understand what CALL can do, however, it is important to understand some of its history.

Knowing where it came from can provide more knowledge of where it is headed and the value it has provided to others on their learning journey. The original use of CALL was primarily at universities, on large mainframe computers (Sharma & Barrett, 2007). The personal computer changed that, and brought CALL to the classroom more easily. It also brought CALL to the home, as more people began to own personal computers and the price for them came down.

Once the internet grew in popularity, there was even more to be considered when addressing ways to handle CALL and how it could be developed even further to encompass the needs of a larger number of language learners (Warschauer & Kern, 2000). With the advancements seen in CALL in recent years, it has become not only a tool for teaching and learning language, but also an important research area within the higher education field (Jarvis, 2013).

The traditional programs that were created under CALL provided a stimulus, and the learner then provided a response to that stimulus. While helpful, it was not enough to make learning a new language significantly easier than before (Jarvis, 2013). As CALL became more web-based and offered more options for both teaching and learning, the effects of it became more obvious when it came to how learners were handling the material with which they were presented and how it was affecting the relationship between the instructor and the learners.

This indicated how limited the traditional frameworks were for understanding CALL (Jarvis, 2013). New thinking is clearly needed, some of which is already occurring. It is generally the Asian learners who are driving this thinking, as well, because they look at learning in a different and sometimes far more dedicated way than other groups of learners (Jarvis, 2013).

Some of this comes from the demands that are statistically higher for Asian people when it comes to learning, and some of it comes from simply using different ways of looking at things where learning is concerned (Jarvis, 2013). Articulating the value of these frameworks and how they are changing with respect to CALL is vital to keeping the technology moving in the right direction. Jarvis (2013) examined non-native speakers of English who worked in independent study in an effort to determine what Asian learners need and how they are changing CALL.

He determined that Mobile Assisted Language Use (MALU), combined with connectivism as an educational theory, may provide a stronger framework for the examination of technology (Jarvis, 2013). That argument is being mostly driven by the way Asian learners use CALL and how they go about learning languages. The value to them is not the same, statistically, as the value to other groups of language learners, and this is important to note.

It can affect the future of CALL and can bring some positive light to the ways in which teaching and learning might be adjusted in order to help both teachers and students have more success in and out of the classroom (Jarvis, 2013). It is important, however, to consider both students and instructors when it comes to the benefits of technologies and how attitudes are affected by those benefits.

Studies into this area have indicated discrepancies between the awareness the students have regarding the goals of the instructor and the importance the instructors actually place on using CALL (Weibe & Kabata, 2010). Data collected by Weibe & Kabata (2010) indicated that there was also a disparity between how (and how much) students used CALL and how (and how much) the instructors thought the students were using CALL.

The types of technologies instructors deemed useful and the technologies that were used by the students with the highest level of success were different, as well (Weibe & Kabata, 2010). That is a clear indication that CALL may work, but that the way in which it works and how valuable each piece of it actually is may be very different based on whose perception one is considering.

In order to collect their information, Weibe & Kabata (2010) looked at how long students spent on CALL activities per week, and compared the daily journals of the instructors to see if the instructors' behaviours affected student CALL use patterns. That helped to fill a significant gap in the literature. The learning of a second language is very challenging, and CALL proponents have been touting the merits of their software for a considerable period of time.

Research into the software as it was being developed and throughout its evolution has shown that CALL does have value for those who are learning a language (Bush, 2008). However, one of the downfalls of CALL is that a number of teachers do not rely on it even when it comes with the textbook (Bush, 2008). Many textbooks for language learning come with CDs or with a web-based log on that can be used to help the learner master the language more quickly.

When these extra options are not used, it becomes very difficult to determine how much of an affect CALL is really having on language learners (Bush, 2008). Many researchers are astounded to the lack of concern a significant number of teachers of a foreign language display when it comes to using CALL options that come with the textbooks that are provided to students (Bush, 2008). There are many advanced software and hardware delivery systems available today, making it incredibly easy for students and teachers to use CALL to their advantage.

When they avoid doing so, however, one has to question whether the overall implementation of CALL when it comes to language learning going to be one of success, or whether it will ultimately fail due to seeming lack of interest and a resistance to change on the part of foreign language instructors (Bush, 2008). Current issues in implementation of CALL seem to be mostly based on a lack of teaching interest and dedication to using the hardware and software necessary to provide CALL to students (Bush, 2008).

With some changes made in that area, CALL could become much more valuable in learning a second language or even learning a number of languages. One of the areas in which CALL has been used successfully, and in which more study is being done to help more students, is the learning of English among those who speak another language as their primary language (Hamada, 2014).

Many of these individuals are not that motivated to learn English, as they may not want to speak it at home and may be able to do everything they need to do without using English, or without using more than just basic words and phrases (Hamada, 2014). Understanding why these learners are not motivated, and determining ways to help motivate them, had not been deeply considered until Hamada (2014) examined them.

The effectiveness of a number of strategies was examined through use of a questionnaire, which helped to determine that demotivation could be prevented among these students if they were presented with the type of learning experience that they valued and from which they could see true benefit (Hamada, 2014). Many instructors use CALL, at least in part, to facilitate the learning of English as a second language in their classrooms (Khamkhein, 2012). It has become a very powerful medium for learning language, and both students and teachers see significant value in it.

However, there is a level of understanding and sensitivity that needs to be addressed when it comes to using the programs the right way, and if that is ignored there will be consequences including demotivation and lowered ability to learn the language (Khamkhein, 2012). It is clear that there are both advantages and disadvantages to using CALL, but that is the case with any type of language learning component.

The key is to ensure that all of the needed components work together to make the language learning experience a good one, and to help it be the most valuable that it can be when it comes to what is offered to students (Khamkhein, 2012). The research conducted by Khamkhein (2012) mirrors that of other researchers in that it shows that Asian learners are changing the way CALL is used because their needs are different and they are able to provide information that can make CALL better and more effective, overall.

By critically examining and reassessing CALL, one can see that there should be three categories, which should be Restricted, Open, and Integrated (Bax, 2003). This will allow CALL to be used in a number of different ways based on the needs of the classroom and the learners, so that the learning is not as restrictive as it would be with only one "version" of CALL being available for use (Bax, 2003).

Open CALL is what is commonly being used today, but Bax (2003) argues for "normalisation" in that it is important for CALL to simply be something that is used for learning, and not an "extra" that is tacked onto the learning experience. Chambers and Bax (2006) emphasize the importance of this normalisation plan in order to overcome the current obstacles that are being seen with the use of CALL today.

Part II Section A There are a number of opportunities offered by social media when it comes to the professional development of educators who handle foreign language learning. Developing digital literacies is very important for educators, as new and changing times require new and changing skills (Hockly & Dudeney, 2013).

While a number of foreign language teachers and those who teach English as a second language are familiar with social media, they may not be familiar with the many ways in which it can be used to foster learning both in and out of the classroom (Hockly & Dudeney, 2013). Becoming literate with social media from an education standpoint is much more than just providing information on social media sites or interacting with others there.

It must still be about languages, and how to foster the growth and development of students that need to learn those languages (Hockly & Dudeney, 2013). In order to do that, however, connections must be made between the teachers and the students so there is some common ground on which to base the learning. Social media provides a connection-based literacy that can be used in order to help students understand concepts and see the value of learning a new language (Hockly & Dudeney, 2013).

In other words, when students follow others on social media who have commonalities and speak the language they are working to learn, they can become more interested in working to understand what is being said (Tess, 2013). That will generally only take place, though, if the student already has some interest in or excitement about learning, and that will generally only take place if there has been an instructor or teacher who has fostered that interest within the student (Tess, 2013).

That fostering of interest cannot really be expected to take place if the instructor himself or herself does not have digital literacy and does not understand how to use social media correctly. There are a number of key elements that characterize digital literacy and that need to be used by those instructors who value this type of literacy and see that it can provide help and insight to their students, as well. First, there is a cultural component to the issue that instructors must understand (Hockly & Dudeney, 2013).

If instructors cannot act appropriately in the online environment, that will be off-putting to students who do not want to turn their online experience into something that feels like a formal classroom setting (Hockly & Dudeney, 2013). Instructors who are able to get into the culture and spirit of the social media they are interacting through will be much more likely to foster their own personal and professional development, as well as that of their students (Hockly & Dudeney, 2013).

This can play a significant role in how much the instructor is able to encourage the students, and how much that instructor also learns about himself or herself and how to develop further educational opportunities to help future students succeed. Teachers also have to understand the cognitive issues that surround the digital world and experience. When they interact digitally, they are dealing with something very different than they would have in the "real world" of the classroom setting (Tess, 2013).

Because of that, they have to not only understand and work within the culture, but they have to be aware of the cognitive differences between more traditional settings and what is seen in the social media sphere (Hockly & Dudeney, 2013). Instructors who are able to do this are much more likely to provide interest to their students, who will also develop new ways in which to look at social media and what it can provide to them.

Through this, instructors can develop their own cognitive skills, making them more effective in the classroom and better able to help students with their language needs (Hockly & Dudeney, 2013). Because communication in the digital environment is very different than what is seen in traditional teaching settings, many instructors are, understandably, behind the times (Hockly & Dudeney, 2013). Classes have been taught in the traditional way for a very long time compared to how long digital literacy has been a concern (Tess, 2013).

Even though the idea of learning through the internet has been available for several years now, the idea of interacting through social media in order to foster learning is still extremely new. There are "bugs" that still need to be worked out, but teachers can help avoid some of the problems that come with social media interaction in the context of fostering learning if they are able to focus on how they can and should be using social media to help their students gain value (Hockly & Dudeney, 2013).

Additionally, these teachers need to see that they will also gain a significant amount of value by using social media, because they will learn the proper ways to communicate on the various platforms, making them more accessible to one another and to students who may need assistance (Hockly & Dudeney, 2013). Among the problems teachers face when it comes to using social media to foster personal and professional development is that they are not confident in what they are doing (Hockly & Dudeney, 2013).

Some of them may not use social media at all, and those who do will likely use it because they want to interact with friends and family members. This is a different thing than interacting with students on a level with which they are comfortable and that helps them learn (Hockly & Dudeney, 2013).

Teachers who have been in the profession for a number of years are not used to teaching with social media, and that can put them at a distinct disadvantage when it comes to getting "up to speed" with the latest technology and terminology. Fortunately, these teachers can still learn to be effective from a social media and learning standpoint, but it will take effort and dedication on their part to do so (Hockly & Dudeney, 2013).

While they will be helping their students, they will also be learning how to be better and more effective teachers of a foreign language. Engaging with others is what social media is all about, but that does not mean that the engagement should be continual or random. Many people who use social media post seemingly every thought they have, and they "friend" nearly everyone who reaches out to them.

The value of the information they present and the connections they make is suspect, largely because it is not focused and does not seem to be done with any kind of intention (Hockly & Dudeney, 2013). That is an important consideration of which to be aware, since teachers who are going to use social media for personal and professional development, and to interact with students, will want to consider what information they actually should be providing to others (Hockly & Dudeney, 2013).

Being a teacher comes with a certain level of scrutiny, and that has to be taken seriously or a teacher can end up providing information that can harm his or her career or personal life. Avoiding that while still interacting in a very human way is an important concept in digital literacy (Hockly & Dudeney, 2013). One of the ways in which teachers can get involved in social media and help foster professional and personal development is to join sites that are more professional in nature, such as LinkedIn or Google+.

These are considered to be more "serious" in many cases, and not designed to be as open and casual as sites like Facebook. Twitter can also be a good choice for providing short messages, and for offering up news and opinions on current events. Many people use it like a news feed (Tess, 2013). Instructors who can provide news to their students that way may have the advantage when it comes to whether the students actually see and recognize the information.

That can make students more comfortable with the instructor, who can also post "coded" messages in the language the students are trying to learn in order to help them puzzle out what is being said. Learning can and should be enjoyable, but it still has to fulfil the requirements of teaching students what they need to know. If teachers are having trouble becoming digitally literate, there are a number of things that can be done.

In some cases, it may be important for an educational institution to implement staff training, so that more instructors have the opportunity to learn everything they need to know (Hockly & Dudeney, 2013).

Not only will they be able to interact professional and personally with other teachers much more easily, but they will also be able to focus on how they can use social media techniques and interaction to reach out to their students and create an environment that will provide better potential for learning a new language and retaining it more easily (Hockly & Dudeney, 2013).

Section B When it comes to the formal and informal learning of foreign language students, social media can provide a number of opportunities to help them grow and develop their skills. This can be done in the classroom, and can also be addressed through online interaction (Hockly & Dudeney, 2013). There are a number of excellent ways to bring online and social media interaction into the classroom, such as using sample text messages and having students translate them into proper English language words and phrases (Hockly & Dudeney, 2013).

They can learn valuable lessons about when it is acceptable to use "textspeak" and when it is not, which can help them with more than just the learning of language (Hockly & Dudeney, 2013). Linguistic norms can easily be addressed by a text message lesson, and that will allow students to advance in their understanding of words and phrases, as well as the appropriateness of the language (Hockly & Dudeney, 2013). Developing literary regarding hypertext and hyperlinks is another way that social media can be used in the foreign language classroom.

Students can be given texts that contain links and those that do not, in an effort to determine which one is easier to read and understand (Hockly & Dudeney, 2013). By understanding how easy it is to read texts that have hyperlinks and texts that do not, students can more easily determine how they can address their own hyperlinking needs when they write information to others (Hockly & Dudeney, 2013). This helps them develop options that are more appropriate and that work better for them, which can increase their overall language literacy.

That does not mean that students should only practice social media information in the classroom, though, or that these are the only options that can help them learn to be more literate (Hockly & Dudeney, 2013). There are a number of other ways in which students can focus on addressing literacy issues in a foreign language while using social media to help them.

By getting involved with actual social media and making sure they understand the value of it, they are able to practice what they learn in the classroom among others who are learning and also among native speakers of the language itself (Tess, 2013). The opportunities they have for social interaction online are numerous, and that means they can choose the interaction styles that work best for them and make them feel the most comfortable.

The more comfortable they feel, the more likely they will be to use their language skills and learn from the mistakes they make (Tess, 2013). Learning from those who are native speakers of the language can help them adjust how they write and speak a language by catching small mistakes that they may not notice on their own (Tess, 2013). Even small errors can add up, and can cause the overall gist of the sentence to be lost.

Because social media is so much about getting a message out to others, being able to do so clearly has a high level of value (Tess, 2013). In that context, social media is a great way to foster language learning. One of the things a foreign language learner can do in order to ensure maximum benefit from language learning at a university is to embrace social media (Du & Wagner, 2006).

The use of it at the university level is significant, and it is used not only for students to interact with one another, but also to allow for interaction between students and teachers, and to provide important information regarding classes, schedules, tests, and other issues (Du & Wagner, 2006).

Because so much is conducted through social media on both a personal and professional level, it is very important for university students to have accounts that allow them to keep up with what is taking place at the school and with their classes. It cannot be mandated that students have social media accounts, of course, but it can be strongly encouraged. Interactions through socialization tools like forums for specific classes can be, and often are, required (Tess, 2013).

That is not identical to social media as it is thought of in terms of sites like Facebook and Twitter, but it is still a form of social media. The forums that are required for some classes allow a student.