Literature Review
Introduction
The decline in student mathematics performance between lower elementary grades (12) and upper elementary grades (34) is a critical concern in educational research and policy. Although foundational numeracy skills are typically established in early grades, disparities in performance often widen as students encounter more complex mathematical concepts. This literature review synthesizes existing research on the relationship between teacher perspectives and student achievement in mathematics, with a focus on identifying factors that contribute to this decline. This chapter discusses theoretical frameworks, findings, and methodological approaches to contextualize the research problem.
Research on mathematics instruction has drawn attention to various factors that influence teaching practices and student learning outcomes. The research reveals significant themes in mathematics education, which can be categorized under instructional factors and individual factors. These interconnected dimensions shed light on how teacher perspectives, beliefs, instructional strategies, and student attributes influence the teaching and learning of mathematics. More shall now be said on this, beginning with the theoretical perspective used herein.
Theoretical Perspective
This study is grounded in multiple theoretical perspectives that collectively provide a comprehensive understanding of the factors influencing mathematics performance in upper elementary grades. The theoretical framework integrates Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura, 1986, 1997), Sociocultural Theory (Vygotsky, 1978), and Attribution Theory (Weiner, 1985) to analyze how teacher perspectives, instructional strategies, and student learning experiences shape mathematical achievement.
Social Cognitive Theory is particularly relevant because it explains how teachers' self-efficacy beliefs influence their instructional decisions and, in turn, impact student motivation and achievement. Given that teacher confidence affects pedagogical choices, this framework helps to explore how instructional quality may contribute to the observed decline in math performance. Similarly, Sociocultural Theory highlights the role of social interaction, scaffolding, and culturally responsive teaching in shaping student learning experiences. It provides a lens through which to examine how early-grade instructional support may not always transition effectively into later elementary years. Finally, Attribution Theory is helpful in understanding how teachers perceive student ability and how these perceptions influence their instructional decisions, potentially reinforcing achievement gaps. Through the integration of these theories, this study provides a fresh and fuller perspective on the factors influencing mathematics performance. This approach will allow for a more complete analysis of how teacher beliefs, instructional strategies, and student experiences interact, so that more effective interventions can be developed to improve math education in upper elementary classrooms.
Social Cognitive Theory
Analysis of the problem of declining mathematics performance in upper elementary grades is grounded in the Social Cognitive Theory. This theory was originally developed by Albert Bandura in 1986 and was primarily used to study how individuals learn in social contexts. The Social Cognitive Theory indicates that learning occurs in a social context with a dynamic and reciprocal interaction of the person, environment, and behavior. According to this theory, students' learning and academic performance can be influenced by their social interactions, personal factors, and environmental factors, such as their teachers' instructional strategies and competence.
The map depicted in Figure 1 below presents a visual overview of how the selected literature fits within the broader categories of instructional factors and individual factors, both of which potentially contribute to the problem statement under consideration. The hierarchical structure signifies the flow of topics under each category, ultimately connecting them to the problem statement.
Figure 1. Literature Map
Social Cognitive Theoretical Perspective
Banduras (1997) comprehensive work went on to describe in more detail the theory of self-efficacy and how teachers confidence in their ability to instruct effectively directly influences student engagement and achievement. This concept is important in understanding the dynamics of teaching and learning, as it exposes the significance of teacher self-perception in shaping educational outcomes. Studies by Klassen and Tze…
Literature Review
Introduction
The decline in student mathematics performance between lower elementary grades (12) and upper elementary grades (34) is a critical concern in educational research and policy. Although foundational numeracy skills are typically established in early grades, disparities in performance often widen as students encounter more complex mathematical concepts. This literature review synthesizes existing research on the relationship between teacher perspectives and student achievement in mathematics, with a focus on identifying factors that contribute to this decline. This chapter discusses theoretical frameworks, findings, and methodological approaches to contextualize the research problem.
Research on mathematics instruction has drawn attention to various factors that influence teaching practices and student learning outcomes. The research reveals significant themes in mathmatics education, which can be categorized under instructional factors and individual factors. These interconnected dimensions shed light on how teacher perspectives, beliefs, instructional strategies, and student attributes influence the teaching and learning of mathematics. More shall now be said on this, beginning with the theoretical perspective used herein.
Theoretical Perspective
This study is grounded in multiple theoretical perspectives that collectively provide a comprehensive understanding of the factors influencing mathematics performance in upper elementary grades. The theoretical framework integrates Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura, 1986, 1997), Sociocultural Theory (Vygotsky, 1978), and Attribution Theory (Weiner, 1985) to analyze how teacher perspectives, instructional strategies, and student learning experiences shape mathematical achievement.
Social Cognitive Theory is particularly relevant because it explains how teachers' self-efficacy beliefs influence their instructional decisions and, in turn, impact student motivation and achievement. Given that teacher confidence affects pedagogical choices, this framework helps to explore how instructional quality may contribute to the observed decline in math performance. Similarly, Sociocultural Theory highlights the role of social interaction, scaffolding, and culturally responsive teaching in shaping student learning experiences. It provides a lens through which to examine how early-grade instructional support may not always transition…
Literature Review
Introduction
The decline in student mathematics performance between lower elementary grades (12) and upper elementary grades (34) is a critical concern in educational research and policy. Although foundational numeracy skills are typically established in early grades, disparities in performance often widen as students encounter more complex mathematical concepts. This literature review synthesizes existing research on the relationship between teacher perspectives and student achievement in mathematics, with a focus on identifying factors that contribute to this decline. This chapter discusses theoretical frameworks, findings, and methodological approaches to contextualize the research problem.
Research on mathematics instruction has drawn attention to various factors that influence teaching practices and student learning outcomes. The research reveals significant themes in mathematics education, which can be categorized under instructional factors and individual factors. These interconnected dimensions shed light on how teacher perspectives, beliefs, instructional strategies, and student attributes influence the teaching and learning of mathematics. More shall now be said on this, beginning with the theoretical perspective used herein.
Theoretical Perspective
This study is grounded in multiple theoretical perspectives that collectively provide a comprehensive understanding of the factors influencing mathematics performance in upper elementary grades. The theoretical framework integrates Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura, 1986, 1997), Sociocultural Theory (Vygotsky, 1978), and Attribution Theory (Weiner, 1985) to analyze...
Given that teacher confidence affects pedagogical choices, this framework helps to explore how instructional quality may contribute to the observed decline in math performance. Similarly, Sociocultural Theory highlights the role of social interaction, scaffolding, and culturally responsive teaching in shaping student learning experiences. It provides a lens through which to examine how early-grade instructional support may not always transition effectively into later elementary years. Finally, Attribution Theory is helpful in understanding how teachers perceive student ability and how these perceptions influence their instructional decisions, potentially reinforcing achievement gaps. Through the integration of these theories, this study provides a fresh and fuller perspective on the factors influencing mathematics performance. This approach will allow for a more complete analysis of how teacher beliefs, instructional strategies, and student experiences interact, so that more effective interventions can be developed to improve math education in upper elementary classrooms.
Social Cognitive Theory
Analysis of the problem of declining mathematics performance in upper elementary grades is grounded in the Social Cognitive Theory. This theory was originally developed by Albert Bandura in 1986 and was primarily used to study how individuals learn in social contexts. The Social Cognitive Theory indicates that learning occurs in a social context with a dynamic and reciprocal interaction of the person, environment, and behavior. According to this theory, students' learning and academic performa.......h as their teachers' instructional strategies and competence.
The map depicted in Figure 1 below presents a visual overview of how the selected literature fits within the broader categories of instructional factors and individual factors, both of which potentially contribute to the problem statement under consideration. The hierarchical structure signifies the flow of topics under each category, ultimately connecting them to the problem statement.
Figure 1. Literature Map
Social Cognitive Theoretical Perspective
Banduras (1997) comprehensive work went on to describe in more detail the theory of self-efficacy and how teachers confidence in their ability to instruct effectively directly influences student engagement and achievement. This concept is important in understanding the dynamics of teaching and learning, as it exposes the significance of teacher self-perception in shaping educational outcomes. Studies by Klassen and Tze (2014) reveal that teachers with high self-efficacy in mathematics are more likely to employ student-centered pedagogies, fostering deeper conceptual understanding. These pedagogies often involve collaborative learning, problem-solving, and critical thinking, which are essential for developing students' mathematical literacy.
Conversely, teachers who doubt their competence often resort to rote instruction, which correlates with declining performance in upper grades (Stipek, 1996). Rote instruction focuses on memorization and repetition, rather than comprehension and application, which can lead to a superficial understanding of mathematical concepts. This approach can result in students struggling to apply mathematical principles to real-world problems, ultimately affecting their academic achievement. For example, a longitudinal study found that Grade 3 students taught by low-efficacy teachers scored 12% lower on problem-solving assessments than peers in high-efficacy classrooms (Goos & Beswick, 2021). This disparity reveals the importance of teacher self-efficacy in promoting student success.
The implications of Bandura's theory apply in other ways, too, such as when it comes to the shaping of teacher professional development and school policies. Teachers with high self-efficacy are more likely to seek out opportunities for professional growth, such as attending workshops or conferences, to improve their instructional skills (Martin et al., 2008). In contrast, teachers with low self-efficacy may avoid these opportunities due to feelings of inadequacy or fear of being evaluated (Friedman, 2000). Schools can support teacher development by providing resources and training that foster a sense of self-efficacy among educators (Bray-Clark & Bates, 2003).
Sociocultural Theory and Instructional Practices
Vygotskys (1978) sociocultural theory emphasizes the role of social interaction and scaffolding in learning. This theory posits that students learn best through collaborative activities with peers and instructors who provide guidance and support. According to Vygotsky (1978), scaffolding is an essential component of sociocultural theory. Scaffolding refers to the temporary support provided by more knowledgeable peers to help learners complete tasks that are beyond their current level of competence. As learners become more proficient, the scaffolding is gradually removed, allowing them to take on more responsibility for their own learning. Research has shown that effective scaffolding can have a positive impact on student learning outcomes (Doo et al., 2020). For example, Mercer (2013) found that teachers who used scaffolding techniques such as questioning, prompting, and feedback saw significant improvements in their students' science scores.
In addition to scaffolding, culturally responsive teaching is also an important aspect of sociocultural theory (Chenowith, 2014). Culturally responsive teaching involves using instructional strategies that are tailored to the cultural backgrounds and experiences of diverse learners. This approach recognizes that culture plays an essential role in shaping learners' perceptions of themselves and their place in the world. Evidence indicates that culturally responsive teaching can have a positive impact on student engagement and motivation (Ginsberg, 2015). A study by Howard and Terry (2011) found that African American high school students who received instruction from culturally responsive teachers reported higher levels of motivation and engagement than those who received instruction from non-culturally responsive teachers.
Wolfmeyer (2017) has shown that teachers who integrate collaborative problem-solving and culturally responsive strategies in Grades 12 build stronger mathematical foundations. These strategies involve incorporating real-world examples, using diverse texts and materials, and encouraging student discussion and feedback.
However, as curriculum demands shift in Grades 34 toward abstract concepts (e.g., fractions, multi-step equations), teachers may struggle to adapt scaffolding techniques, leading to disengagement (Boaler, 2019). The transition from concrete to abstract thinking requires significant cognitive adjustments from students. Teachers must be able to adjust their instructional approaches accordingly to ensure students receive adequate support during this critical phase. Overall, this misalignment between early and upper-grade pedagogy is a key theoretical gap explored in this review. The gap itself indicates a need for educators to develop better understanding of how students' cognitive abilities evolve over time.
Some attention has been given by scholars to the problem of how to address the misalignment between early and upper-grade pedagogy, with evidence indicating that educators must develop more nuanced understandings of how students' cognitive abilities evolve over time (Goldstein, 2007). This requires recognizing that learners progress through different stages of development at different rates (Jimenez et al., 2024). One approach is differentiated instruction which involves tailoring instructional methods materials to meet individual needs (Goyibova et al., 2025). Another approach involves Universal Design Learning, which provides multiple means for granting all learners with equal access to educative processes.
Attribution Theory, Teacher Perceptions of Student Ability, and Student Experiences
Weiners (1985) Attribution Theory provides a critical framework for understanding how teachers interpret student success or failure and how these interpretations shape their instructional decisions. According to this theory, teachers attribute student struggles to different causes, such as effort, ability, or external factors (e.g., home environment or socio-economic status). When teachers believe that students struggle due to lack of effort or external circumstances, they are more likely to provide additional instructional support or modify their teaching strategies. However, when teachers attribute difficulties to fixed ability, they may become less inclined to intervene, reinforcing existing inequalities and further limiting students' opportunities for growth.
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