Solomon's House in Bacon's The New Atlantis and Novum Organum doctrines

¶ … Francis Bacon's philosophy regards the reorganization of the study of science and its potential to amplify a nation's relationship with, and understanding of, God. Solomon's House within "The New Atlantis" exemplifies this relationship, specifically with respect to the division of labor and resources; the ultimate result being a utopic society possessing a closer resemblance to heaven than any other nation on earth. It is his emphasis upon cooperative research, delineated in his "Novum Organum," that makes the nation described in "The New Atlantis" unique and righteous. Essentially, Bacon's belief that a proper approach to science can enhance society in virtually every way imaginable is explicitly noted in "Novum Organum" and illustrated by example in "The New Atlantis."

Largely, the catalyst for Bacon's embrace of Solomon's House as a model for scientific research is his appraisal of contemporary scientific and logical methods of the late sixteenth century in which he lived. He writes:

For they [other thinkers of his time] have tended to stifle and interrupt inquiry exactly in proportion as they have prevailed in bringing others to their opinion; and their own activity has not counterbalanced the mischief they have occasioned by corrupting and destroying that of others." (Bacon 105).

He believes that the schools of his time had laid claim to all useful knowledge, but only succeeded in generating controversies and discrepancies (Sargent 146). Clearly, by his understanding, appropriate application of logical thought processes should come to the rescue -- thus, solving these disputes. However, "The art of logic, therefore, being (as we have mentioned), too late a precaution, and in no way remedying the matter, has tended more to confirm errors, than to disclose truth." (Bacon105). The problem, as Bacon sees it, is that a rigorous and methodical approach to the sciences has not yet been instituted, and as a result, scientific researchers consist of a handful of meandering dabblers.

Although the late sixteenth century had been witness to much scientific advancement, Bacon attributed this primarily to accidental discovery rather than any systematic scientific method. He writes, "Even the effects already discovered are due to chance and experiment, rather than to the sciences; for our present sciences are nothing more than peculiar arrangements of matters already discovered, and not methods for discovery or plans for new operations." (Bacon 107). This is the major error he sees within his society: scientific achievements are heralded and used extensively but not logically understood or looked into in any efficient ways.

It is important to note that Bacon does not seek to alter the existing system or to make amendments to his contemporaries' scientific or logical processes; he desires to completely throw them out and start again from scratch. "As the present sciences are useless for the discovery of effects, so the present system of logic is useless for the discovery of sciences." (Bacon 107). This statement illustrates the almost iconoclastic view Bacon takes to the established school of thought, and lends an insight into why he chose to place his utopia on an undiscovered island. Explicitly, it is likely that Bacon envisioned Solomon's House existing far away from Europe so it would also be far away from the corrupted nature of European science. In this way, the British Royal Society in Bacon's time is the lost stepchild of Solomon's House: they have in many ways lost the word of the Lord, and the knowledge of the proper approach to science. To Bacon, these two concepts are virtually inseparable.

Not surprisingly, the society in which Bacon exemplifies scientific enlightenment, religious enlightenment is also seen. The difficulty in bringing these views together is that the human mind wishes to generalize and create analogies to help it understand nature and the works of God. In "Novum Organum" he states, "There is no small difference between the idols of the human mind and the ideas of the Divine mind; this is to say, between certain idle dogmas and the real stamp and impression of created objects, as they are found in nature." (Bacon 108). So the task, clearly, for any society is to formulate a system by which the greatest amount of human perceptions and misinformation can be weeded out; leaving behind only the truth of the causes of nature. Accordingly, a greater understanding of God as well as a superior approach to science is appropriate and necessary in bacon's utopia.

The purpose of science, as Bacon sees it, is to as closely follow the workings of God as possible. So, ultimate understanding of science should reveal ultimate understanding of everything earthly and divine. In "The New Atlantis," the goal of Solomon's House is described, "The end of our foundation is the knowledge of causes, and the secret motions of things; and the enlarging of the bounds of the human empire, to the effecting of all things possible." (Bacon 210). This enlargement of the human empire, presumably, carries mankind somewhat closer to heaven and the divine.

Bacon takes these two apparently conflicting concepts from "Novum Organum" and "The New Atlantis" and reconciles them with his interpretation of specialization. Namely, since men are so far removed from the motives and devices of God, an individual man can only hope to grasp some small fragment of understanding from the natural world. Consequently, the aim of Solomon's House -- to reveal the secrets of God -- can only be achieved by an efficiently working society as a whole, and not by any solitary individual. In British Royal Society this concept has been corrupted by misapplication of information and intellect:

He who has learnt the cause of a particular nature (such as whiteness or heat), in particular subjects only, has acquired but an imperfect knowledge: as he who can induce a certain effect upon particular substances only, among those which are susceptible to it, has acquired but an imperfect power." (Bacon 137).

The pitfall that many scientists and thinkers of Bacon's time find themselves in is that once they grasp the understanding of one cause, they apply their discovered concept too broadly.

Another trouble that Bacon sees with science is that once some men grasp a level of understanding, they perceive themselves to be experts on far more subjects than they truly are. This tendency drives science backward as many others are likely to follow their arguments based upon their expertise in other fields. Bacon discusses this in "Novum Organum":

Some men become attached to particular sciences and contemplations, either from supposing themselves the authors and inventors of them, or from having bestowed the greatest pains upon such subjects, an thus become most habituated to them. If men of this description apply themselves to philosophy and contemplations of a universal nature, they wrest and corrupt them by their preconceived fancies..." (Bacon 111).

The answer to this problem, in Bacon's eyes, is specialization. Specifically, individuals are to be relegated to the crafts and studies that best befit them and their skills. He illustrates his example for how this could be efficiently carried out within the pages of his "New Atlantis." The father of Solomon's House lists the wide variety of occupations and responsibilities of the society's members:

We have three that collect the experiments which are in all books.... We have three that collect the experiments of all mechanical arts, and also of liberal sciences, and also of practices which are not brought into arts.... We have three that try new experiments, such as themselves think good.... We have three that draw the experiments of the former four into titles and tables, to give the better light for the drawing of observations and axioms out of them." (Bacon 214).

So, this unified collective of thinking individuals has come together to better perfect the modes by which knowledge are derived. Each person is designated a job somewhere along the line of the scientific process; almost like individual workers positioned on an assembly line in a factory. This organization skirts the problems that Bacon mentions in "Novum Organum." Principles are not universally applied where they do not belong, and people are limited to the areas of study they are most proficient at.

Although Bacon seeks to overthrow the secretive practices of many of his contemporaries who claim to study nature, there remains a secretive element to Solomon's House. In fact they "take all an oath of secrecy, for the concealing of those which we think fit to keep the secret; though some of those we do reveal sometimes to the state, and some not." (Bacon 214). Yet, unlike the secrets that Bacon abhorred in science, these were kept in the mind of social consciousness. The House's control over information gave it power and the secrets they kept were intended to limit this power lest it be used unwisely.

Doubtlessly, science had already revealed itself to be powerful by Bacon's time and made many aspects of life previously impossible quite commonplace. Yet, there existed no regulations upon the power that science could wield, and generally only rested on the shoulders of the discoverer to sell his product and keep his methods his own. Essentially, the power was held by the individual, and the individual was lacking of all incentives to make his understanding more universal.

Bacon sees this as a major obstacle to widespread progress and sees development of easily understandable tables, graphs, and illustrations necessary to the proper sharing of scientific knowledge. He writes:

But natural and experimental history is so varied and diffuse, that it confounds and distracts the understanding unless it be fixed and exhibited in due order. We must, therefore, form tables and co-ordinations of instances, upon such a plan, an in such order, that the understanding may be enabled to act upon them." (Bacon 140).

Bacon is one of the first scientist/philosophers to suggest that those in possession of specialized knowledge must find a way to translate their discoveries to others in some understandable way. This notion is reflected in "The New Atlantis" by his specific mentioning of workers being assigned the particular duty of translating the information gathered through experimentation. The members of Solomon's House understand that through their process of specialization many of them will not be able to fully comprehend the work of many others. However, important decisions still need to be made -- such as what experiments should be looked into, and who should be assigned to what project -- so, individuals making these decisions must be presented with adequate information. This appears to be one of the keystones of Bacon's interpretation of the scientific method, and it appears in both Solomon's House and his "Novum Organum."

Once again, Bacon illustrates that the limitations inherent in the human mind make interpretation of natural concepts crucial to the goal of full knowledge of causes. In "Novum Organum" Bacon extensively investigates the causes of heat, explosions associated with gunpowder, and weight. He writes very lengthy, detailed, and flawed arguments discussing the properties of these phenomena. However, he refrains entirely from discussing the nature of these fundamental facets of life in "The New Atlantis." It is likely that the members of Solomon's House have revealed the secrets behind these issues still hotly debated in Europe, but fail to reveal their knowledge to Bacon because he is not ready. Nevertheless, Bacon's outlined arguments in "Novum Organum" serve as templates for the type of discussions that he imagines taking place within Solomon's House; and perhaps, could eventually lead to ultimate understanding.

This method, as closely related as it is to understanding of science, it is also related to understanding of the divine. After all, Bacon believes that our perceptions are merely fragmented interpretations of the God. It is with this in mind that it is important to notice that there is little nationalism present within Bacon's writings. The citizens of Bensalem are Christian, and apparently, one of their most important ways for evaluating the foreign explorers is by investigating their faith. Bacon's character is revealed some of the secrets of their society because he is a member of the Christian world. The initial warning they receive possesses a cross upon it: "This scroll was signed with a stamp of cherubin's wings, not spread, but hanging downwards; and by them a cross." (Bacon 199). The sailors are quite perplexed initially, but as they become acquainted with the islanders they gain each other's trust through a shared faith.

Similarly, the propensity these two peoples enjoy for the understanding of nature is also recognized. The secrets of Solomon's House are revealed to Bacon's character because he is both Christian and shows interest in the natural world. The consequence of this is that, to Bacon, investigation into nature must necessarily agree with the doctrines of Christianity -- they are purely connected. So, the future world that Solomon's House seeks is a world to be shared with those who, bound by their faith, seek the same ultimate goal.

Doubtlessly, Bacon views the future of science as benefiting all of Christendom, and not merely his personal self or kingdom. He writes, "Let us begin from God, and show that our pursuit from its exceeding goodness clearly proceeds from him, the Author of good and Father of light." (Bacon 125). With this statement in "Novum Organum," Bacon initiates his arguments in favor of reorganizing science. God becomes the starting point for all understanding: if anything can be understood of God, then that principle can be carried down to other aspects of his work. So, the knowledge that can be taken from the world necessarily relies on one's knowledge of the divine. It is for this reason that the members of Solomon's House are willing to share with the foreigners, and it is for this reason that Bacon's explorers are not British, but Spanish. The British, the Spanish, and the Bensalems are all predominantly Christian.

Another theme found in "The New Atlantis" is one of religious tolerance. However, this notion is not explicitly expressed in "Novum Organum." The deeds of God, although mentioned frequently, are simply assumed to be the Christian God. Although Christianity is highly favored in Bensalem, Judaism is tolerated; although looked upon with some awe. He writes: "for they have some few strips of Jew yet remaining amongst them, whom they leave to their own religion. Which they may the better do, because they are of a far differing disposition from the Jews in other parts." (Bacon 209). Bacon does not expect that, even in his utopia, will every citizen be Christian; but he certainly does believe that the natural rulers of science and the kingdom should be Christian. After all, only the Christian approach to the natural world can reveal any significant amount of truth.

One tendency that Bacon appears to particularly wish to dispel is one that he finds in many of his countrymen; to look upon the achievements of their civilization and pronounce that they have achieved the utmost level of greatness. He finds answers to this inclination in both "Novum Organum" and "The New Atlantis." In the former he states:

First, then, the introduction of great inventions appears one of the most distinguished of human actions... Inventions are also, as it were, new creations and imitations of divine works... And it is worthy of remark in Solomon, that whilst he flourished in the possession of his empire, in wealth, in magnificence of his works, in his court, his household, his fleet, the splendor of his name, and the most unbounded admiration of mankind, he still placed his glory in none of these, but declared that it is the glory of God to conceal a thing, but the glory of a king to search it out." (Bacon 135).

Again, Bacon downplays the accomplishments of man by contrasting them with the works of God. But, with his quote from Solomon, he illustrates one of his key premises: it is man's most glorious exploit to seek out the divine mysteries of nature, and to render them in some form the human mind is capable of comprehending. Accordingly, the achievements of man cannot be measured against the Lord, but can be measured by their relationship to Him. So the exploitation of the Lord's secrets through invention means nothing and is not glorious without proper understanding.

Additionally, it is worthy of note that Bacon specifically mentions Solomon, and his wisdom, within the pages of "Novum Organum." Obviously, the king's words affected him deeply enough to name his scientific society Solomon's House, and suggests that these words, perhaps, lay the foundation for the scientific method practiced within. The members of Solomon's house do not celebrate their scientific progress so much as they celebrate the process by which the progress came about or the ultimate goal of their endeavor.

The father of Solomon's House is treated like a king. Upon meeting with him, Bacon's character describes what he sees:

He was set upon a low throne richly adorned, and a rich cloth of state over his head, of blue satin embroidered.... When he came in, as we were taught, we bowed low at our first entrance; and when we were come near his chair, he stood up, holding forth his hand ungloved, and in posture of blessing; and we every one of us stooped down, and kissed the hem of his tippet." (Bacon 210).

This seeming disparity between the equal treatment of the citizens and the kinglike rights afforded to the father of Solomon's House can be better understood with Bacon's previous statements from "Novum Organum." The idea that it is the duty of a king, and not a scientist, to seek out the mysteries of God, suggests that Bacon felt it was necessary for such a royal figure to exist in a perfect society. Perhaps, it this kinglike figure who benefits most directly from the specialization of his people; he is the recipient of their interpretations of nature and -- it is likely -- that he possesses a broad knowledge of everything, and yet, nothing in particular. Bacon illustrates that his model for scientific organization requires a kingly figure.

Nevertheless, Bacon does not believe that the benefits of this society can only fully satisfy the political and social leaders. Although the father of Solomon's House reaps many rewards for the scientific enlightenment of his nation, so too do the members of the House and the nation -- and by even further extension, Christendom, through Bacon. Although the father is privy to the broad aspects of Solomon's House, it is the individual who can find his own pride and satisfaction through his small understanding of nature. The father is after all just one man, and as such, cannot hope to comprehend everything that his people are investigating; just as no single man can hope to fully understand any work of God. The benefits of this society fall upon its entire citizenry, though in different ways for everyone.