The Olmec civilization: artifacts, development, and cultural influence

¶ … Olmec

Although scientists found artifacts and art objects of the Olmecs; until this century they did not know about the existence of the Olmecs. Most of the objects which were made by this community were associated with other civilizations, such as Mayan, Toltec or Chichimecan. The Olmec lived between 1600 B.C. And 1400 B.C. In South Mexico. The name of this tribe comes from an Aztec word "ollin" which means "land of rubber."

At first they ate fish and they later start to farm, and that made it possible for them to "develop the first major civilization in Mesoamerica." (The Olmec Civilization) Thanks to the steady food supplies the Olmec population grew and some came to have other occupations. "Some became potters or weavers. Others became priests or teachers." (Ibidem) Once the population grew, so did their farming villages which developed into cities. The present-day city of San Lorenzo was built by the Olmecs in 1150 B.C. In 900 B.C. another city which is now called La Venta was built by the Olmecs. Similar to San Lorenzo, was a religious and trade center.

The term "Olmec" rather refers at an art style and an archaeological society than to a specific group of people. "Olmec artwork is characterized by a focus on the human figure, the conjoining of human and animal elements into composite, supernatural beings, and the symbolic association of secular power and sacred authority" (Olmec -- Masterworks of Ancient Mexico) The huge stone heads present in Olmec cities were made from a volcanic rock, basalt. Although the purpose of these monuments is unknown, scientists believe that may personalize some Olmec rulers. They did not use just basalt, but also jade, from which they made small sculptures. Although the Olmecs were a well organized civilization and they did not have any difficulties in obtaining food, around 500 B.C. they started to leave from cities, and by 400 B.C. they disappeared. However they were an influence for the next civilizations that arrived. Scientists are saying that the Olmec representsa mother culture for "the Zapotec, the people of Teotihuacan, the Aztec and the Maya." (The Olmec Civilization)

2. The Chou Dynasty

The Chou Dynasty is known in Chinese history as the Zhou Dynasty. Although scientist debate on the beginning of this period, the Zhou Dynasty was the longest dynasty in Chinese history. The king, who ended the Shang dynasty and started a new one, was named Zhou Wu. Until the Zhou conquered the Shang dynasty, they were a tributary state. Zhou rulers believed they were the successors of the Shang dynasty. The historian Sima Qian claims that "the Zhou king was able to overthrow the Shang because he had obtained the Mandate of Heaven." (Valerie Hansen, Kenneth Curtis, Kenneth R. Curtis, page 95) The Mandate of Heaven represented for the Chinese people "the generalized forces of the cosmos." (Ibidem) Only these forces were able to choose the next ruler, but it was often used to end a dynasty by force.

The Zhou dynasty is often divided into two periods, although the period from 481 and until 221 B.C. can be considered to be a third period. The first two periods are named Western Zhou (1045-771 B.C.) and Eastern Zhou (771-256 B.C.), and the third period is known as the Warring States Period (481-221 B.C.). The Western Zhou capital was placed in the Wei River Valley. They continued the Shang's "production of "ritual art" (ligi) in bronze and jade" (Shang/Zhou dynasty ca. 1600-256 B.C.) While the Zhou dynasty ruled, human sacrifice for the deceased was almost eliminated. They replace this practice with one that implied placing wooden objects and ceramic replicas in the tomb. Zhou rulers tried to extend the border of their territory and elaborated a new system of governance which gave power to local leaders. "In 770 B.C. The Zhou sovereign was killed by an alliance of his vassals and enemies." (Ibidem) This marked the end of the first period and the beginning of the Eastern Zhou period. In this period there were made some technological advances in the military domain. Compared with the first two periods, the Warring States Period was a peaceful one. This period was marked by an evolution in the philosophy domain. Philosophical schools such as Confucianism, Daoism and Legalism were built in this period.

3. Confucius and his teachings

Confucius (551-479) was China's most important teacher. His hometown is Shandong province. The Chinese called him Kongzi (Kong Fuzi) or Master Kong; Confucius being the name that English gave him. He lived in a period of politic instability. However he was a professional teacher. His students wrote "a series of conversations he had with them, which are called "The Analects," meaning "discussions and conversations." (Valerie Hansen, Kenneth Curtis, Kenneth R. Curtis, page 96)

Confucianism represents the principal beliefs of his thought. Confucius taught his students in an optimistic tone about the chaotic period in China's history. The ritual is the main idea in Confucianism, "because it allows the gentleman, the frequent recipient of Confucius's teachings, to express his inner humanity." (Ibidem) He did not give a clear explanation in what concerns the rituals, but he did mention animal sacrifices, the performance of dances and the playing music.

His teachings do not refer to religion but to an ethical system. His main beliefs were about the respect one should have toward his or her parents. "If children obey their parents and the ruler follows Confucian teachings, the country will right itself because an inspiring example will lead people toward the good." (Ibidem)

He also gained popularity due to refusal to talk about the afterlife or the supernatural. Confucianism does not refer to religion "as the belief in the supernatural" (Ibidem), but "as the offering of rituals at different turning points in one's life." (Ibidem) In this last case, Confucianism can be referred to as a religion. Those who believed in Confucianism as a religion "made offerings to their ancestors and other gods." (Ibidem) Confucianism built a new political system which "emphasized the proper relationships between different members of society." (Shang/Zhou dynasty ca. 1600-256 B.C.) Later on, Confucianism became an ethical code in East Asia and it is even applied nowadays.

5. The Crisis of the Third Century

The Crisis of the Third Century known also as "Military Anarchy" and "Imperial Crisis" took place between 235 and 284 A.D. In that period the Roman Empire dealt with civil war, invasions, economic depression and plague. The crisis began when Emperor Alexander Severus was assassinated by his own troops. In 258 the Empire split into three states: the Gallic Empire, the Plamyrene Empire and the Roman Empire, who stood between the first two regions. Aurelian later successfully reunited the three regions into one.

"The 50 years between the death of Severus Alexander and the accession of Diocletian (235-284) witnessed the near collapse of the whole Roman way of life, from the government and military structure to the economy and the thought system that had characterized the ancient world until then." (Timothy E. Gregory, page 23) During this time no emperor had a long leadership, due to the civil rebellions. In the North and East the frontiers were invaded by the enemies of Rome. "The economy collapsed, inflation drove prices up, and the coinage became virtually worthless." (Ibidem) Also, there was a cultural crisis which contained major changes in the literature, religion and art.

This period is also called "Military Anarchy" because emperors from this period did not rule the empire for a long time. They did not have a proper preparation to rule an Empire. Most of these kings were initially soldiers. The real cause of the crisis it is not known yet, although people blamed it on the new kings. There are some individuals who believe that the crisis took place because there was not given a clear law for the leadership succession.

Due to the crisis, the Roman Empire experienced major change. Not only did the institutions or the economy suffer, but also the society, the religion and the cultural life.

6. The Sung Dynasty

The Sung Dynasty or the Song Dynasty, like the Zhou or Han Dynasty, was one of the most important periods in Chinese history. After the Tang dynasty fell in 907, a new power rose: the Sung Dynasty. "Following the fall of the Tang dynasty in 907, southern China was broken up into small "kingdoms" ruled by warlords, while northern China was controlled by a rapid succession of "dynasties," the Later periods of the Liang, Tang, Jin, Han and Zhou." (Patrick Karl O'Brien, page 86) In 960, the general Zhao Kuangyin ended this period which was named the Ten Kingdoms and Five Dynasties. The general reunified China into the Song dynasty and "reigned as Emperor Taizu until 976." (Ibidem)

The Empire during the Song dynasty was much smaller than the one in the Tang dynasty. Central Asia was lost and the north represented a continuous threat to the Sung. The first capital of the new dynasty was placed in Kaifeng, a city placed in the north. Due to the constant loss of the northern territories, the Sung moved the capital to Hangzhou, a southern city. The constant threat from the north was represented by non-Chinese people, the Khitan and the Tangut.

During the Sung dynasty both culture and economy developed rapidly. Confucianism was seen "as the native Chinese philosophy" (Ibidem). The intellectuals from this dynasty looked for answers to Confucian questions, and due to this Confucianism gained a much important place in the Sung time. Also, during the Sung, art developed new ways of expression. The Emperor Huizong (r. 1100-1126) had developed a bigger interest regarding the painting of landscapes instead of caring for the government. As a result he lost the north, and people of Sung blame him for the defeat. The population grew bigger and as a result so did the economy. In 1127 a new dynasty arose in North China: the Jin Dynasty. The Song dynasty ruled the South for two more years, when the Ming dynasty started a new chapter in Chinese History.

7. The Abbasid Decline

Until the ninth century, the Abbasid period was named The Golden Age of Islam. During this period the Islamic world saw an increase in cultural life and artistic creation. Many creations from this period stayed at the base of the development in societies near the Empire and in the Western world. The Abbasids started to decline because they were a continuous threatened to the rival dynasties. Governors started to leave Baghdad and created their own dynasties. All the provinces that were far away from Baghdad became independent.

By the tenth century the Abbasids lost their power over the Arab Empire. "One factor was that Turkish soldiers, assigned to guard the caliphs, became more powerful in the government." (Craig A. Lockard, page 281) Shi'ites also contributed to the Abbasid Decline through bloody revolts which weakened the caliphate's power. When the Abbasid decline happened, the caliphate was just a memory. "In the tenth century anti-Abbasid Shi'ites established the Fatimid Caliphate in Egypt and North Africa." (Idem, page 282) They elected Cairo as capital, which soon became stronger than Baghdad. In 970, the Fatimids founded the Al-Azhar University, which became "the most influential in the Islamic world." (Ibidem) Cairo was not just a major intellectual center, but also a bigger economic power than Baghdad.

The Abbasids were continuously challenged by invasions and rebellions. The Mongols, central Asian nomad people, due to their attractions towards the wealth of the Abbasids, attacked and destroyed Baghdad in 1258. During this event, the last Abbasid caliph was killed. As a result "the symbolic unity of the Muslim world and the Islamic umma" (Ibidem) was destroyed. However, even with the Abbasids decline, the political and cultural domains were not visible affected until the sixteenth and seventeenth century. With only a few Muslim rulers the Islamic society continue to arise.

8. The Northern Renaissance

Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Raphael were the teachers of Renaissance ideology. "All three artists demonstrated an interest in classical culture, a curiosity about the world, and a belief in human potential." (The Northern Renaissance) Their ideas impressed people who visited Italy, and by the late 1400s the Renaissance spread across North Europe. The word "renaissance" means "rebirth."

After the bubonic plague and the war between and France and England, cities in North Europe started to grow. As a result artists were once again sponsored by the wealthy. First it happened in Flanders and after that it spread to other areas. Unlike Italy, that was fragmented into city-states, France and England were strong monarchies. Francis I of France "invited Leonardo da Vinci to retire in France, and hired Italian artists and architects to rebuild his castle at Fontainebleau." (Ibidem) Due to his actions and the others like that, Renaissance was able to infiltrate the Northern Europe society. Italian Renaissance is different from Northern Renaissance due to the fusion of Italian renaissance with northern traditions. Humanists from Northern Europe were interested about religion and its ideas and the social reform they developed was based on Christian principles.

"Around 1045, Bi Sheng invented movable type, or a separate piece of type for each character in the language." (Ibidem) His invention helped Renaissance spread in Northern Europe. Also, Albrecht Durer's work remained memorable in Renaissance history. His portrait paintings were relatively similar to photography. The Flemish Painters developed the oil painting techniques that were later adopted by the Italians.

9. Humanism

The history of the word humanism is very complex. In the nineteenth century, when was first used as humanismus, had the purpose "to designate the Renaissance emphasis on classical studies in education." (Humanism) In the fifteenth century the professors and students of classical literature were called umanisti. The word comes from the studia humanitatis which refers to some classical studies from the fifteenth century which were equal to the Greek paideia. "Their name was itself based on the Latin humanitas, an educational and political ideal that was the intellectual basis of the entire movement. Renaissance humanism defined itself as an aspiration toward this ideal of virtue and wisdom." (Ibidem)

Humanitas refers to the human virtue improvement. The term refers more to prudence, judgment and love of honor. As a result, the holder of humanitas was an active citizen. Humanitas sustained the balance of action not through compromise but through complementarity. The renaissance humanism included both education of young people and adults. This education was given through philosophical poetry. The humanist current was meant to reform the culture in such a way that people who were ignorant till then will "encourage the grandest human potentialities." (Ibidem)

The humanitas spread through literature offered by the Greeks and Romans. The translated manuscripts represented the base of the current. "For Renaissance humanists, there was nothing dated or outworn about the writings of Plato, Cicero, or Livy." (Ibidem) Classical philosophy and history were seen as examples of a suitable scheme. History was providing the proper experience for humanists. Classical virtue was seen a quality which can be tested and achieved. Humanists searched for rebirth of the lost spirit and wisdom. Humanists wanted to explain that humans can express themselves freely without being condemned by religious fanatics. They sustained the idea that people can only be creative when confidence is present. Victorian humanism was largely based on humanism that emerged during the Renaissance. This new current brought in attention and influenced people in believing that people must search for their true nature.

10. The unification of Japan

In 1185 the shoguns took the emperor's power, and as a result the capital moved from Kyoto to Kamakura. The period between the years 1185 an 1335 was represented by the samurai culture development. In 1274 and 1281 Mongols tried to attack Japan but were defeated. "During the Onin Wars, which began in 1467 and continued for over a century, the country was wracked by bloody civil conflict." (Patrick Karl O'Brien, page 87) Although after the war the capital did not have any political power, culture continued to prevail there. The court suffered an economic crisis during this period.

Japan was unified with the help of three men: Oda Nobunaga (1534-1582), Toyotomi Hideyoshi (1536-1598) and eventually Tokugawa Ieyasu (1542-1616). In 1568 Nobunaga was able to eliminate the Muromachi Shogunate. He remained in Japan's history, not only as one of the three who unified Japan, but also as a man who was very cruel to his enemies. The monks from the Tendai Temple refuse to sustain him. As a result Oda burned down all the temple's buildings and killed everyone there. In 1582, karma struck back as one of his generals killed him. Hideyoshi replaced Nabunaga and avenged his death, as the two were very close. He remained in Japan's history as the most notable military leader. "He is seen as representative of Gekokujo because he rose from the peasantry to become a national leader" (National Unification) He had two attempts to conquer Korea, one in 1592 and one in 1597. In the first one he was held back by the Chinese and he eventually died as a result of his second endeavor to conquer the Koreans. Tokugawa Ieyasu was the person responsible for uniting Japan. He obtained the unification of all of the Japanese in 1600 after he won the battle at Sekigahara. "Sekigahara is the passage, the gate, between east and west: he who holds this passage holds all Japan." (Hermann Bohner, page 283)

11. Enlightened Despotism

Many European leaders from the 1700s practiced one of three major power and governing methods. The first one was "the traditional control by aristocratic elements to rule by privilege." (Tim McNeese, page 17) The second method of government was related to as enlightened despotism, or enlightened absolutism. These monarchs ruled rightly but only in theory. Their directed their efforts toward helping people experience progress. The third movement aroused in the eighteenth century. Similar to the second one, this trend was also influenced by philosophical writings. They, however, fought to eliminate the tyranny which settled during the enlightened absolutism period. Enlightened despots were influenced by Voltaire, Rousseau and other imposing philosophers. They "took the ideas of philosophers and applied them to the ruling of their nation-states." (Ibidem)

Frederick the Great of Prussia (1740-1786) was one of the most important despots. He used the philosophers' theories of ruling by monarchy as one of the most important principles. His beliefs were that the government stays alive for the people, but he did not support the idea that the government must be built by the people. He did not recognize any one power to rule in addition to monarchy. However he had continued to interact with the people whenever he had the opportunity. His monarchy was free of corruption, and his bureaucracy was well-organized. "He created many government agencies such as the Bureau of Commerce and Industry (1741) and the Bureau of Forestry (1770)." (Ibidem) During his leadership, the governmental torture was eliminated and the Prussian law was coded.

Maria Theresa (1740-1780) was a despot monarch who ruled Austria. She was one of the most balanced despots ever to have lived. While he was ruling Austria various political reforms were implemented, "including the creation of government agencies." (Ibidem) Her reforms helped to the development of education, of the law system and of the Church.

Her son, Joseph II followed her in her footsteps: "he abolished serfdom and ordered religious tolerance." (Ibidem) He continued his mother's work by building public schools and by making education obligatory. "Joseph oversaw the building of state hospitals and poorhouses." (Ibidem)

12. The French Revolution

The French Revolution was an important event in European History. The absolutist monarchy was eliminated and the Middle Classes experienced significant progress. The event mainly took place as a consequence of the fact that king Louis XVI failed to effectively combat a financial crisis. He first tried to bring together the Estates-General, "a body of elected representatives which had not met since 1614." (Patrick Karl O'Brien, page 166) After that he influenced people in believing that the Third Estate will be reformed. The Third Estate was represented by the bourgeoisie and the middle classes. This could happenonly if the financial rights of the First and Second Estates were defied. The First and Second Estates did not agree with the king's action, and, as a result, in 1789 "the Third Estate proclaimed itself a national Assembly." (Ibidem)

Due to the bad harvest in1788, the peasants started revolts a year after. On 4 July 1789, the Bastille prison, the symbol of absolutism, was destroyed. The National Assembly eliminated the rights of the aristocrats and clerks, and established The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. The main ideology was that every citizen has the right to be free, to be equal, to have property rights and to speak freely. France was separated into 84 departments.

Due to the royalist armies the conflict between the moderates and the anti-royalists was accentuated. "In April 1792 war was declared on Austria, and in September the Prussians invaded northeastern France, but were repulsed at Valmy." (Ibidem) France was declared a republic as a result of the new elected National Convention.

13. The alliance system and Bismarckian diplomacy

Bismarckian diplomacy was put into practice in the decades previous to the First World War as Germany started to focus on employing attitudes that would assist it in strengthening its position in Europe. The establishment of the Second Reich influenced Otto von Bismarck, the first chancellor of the German Empire to secure the country's power by forming a series of alliances that would discourage France from attempting to rise against it in attempt to recover the territories it lost consequent to the Franco-Prussian war. Bismarck's foreign policy is actually very logical when regarding matters from a contemporary perspective: he was well aware that the French were unhappy with their condition and that it would be pointless for them to start a conflict as long as they did not dispose of the resources necessary for them to do so.

Bismarck concentrated on creating alliances that would establish Germany as one of the most powerful nations on the continent and that would even influence the French to accept this concept without being able to do something about it. In addition to forming alliances, Bismarck also tried to get other European powers to perceive France as an enemy. Furthermore, he started to display an idea regarding how Germany was a friendly nation and how it would be very beneficial for nations across the continent to befriend it.

Even with the fact that Bismarck was somewhat successful in shaping the thinking of particular European powers, these respective players could not stop from thinking about what Germany's limits were. As a consequence, nations started an arms race in an attempt to prevent a potential German intervention on their territories.

14. The Chinese revolution

The Chinese Revolution is probably one of the most significant events in the twentieth century, as it marked the end of one of the world's most imposing empires and the beginning of one of history's most significant communist powers. Lasting from 1911 and until 1912, the episode emphasized what was to be one of the greatest reform processes that the Chinese had ever experienced. The rebellion emerged as a consequence of the fact that the masses were unhappy with how their rulers handled businesses throughout the country and thus wanted to express themselves freely without being punished for their attitudes.

The Quing Dynasty had attempted several strategies meant to assist the country experience positive reform, but failed terribly at doing so. Moreover, China's leaders also failed to keep up with international technological progress and thus made it difficult for the Chinese to continue to be the great power that they considered themselves to be. The majority of Chinese were also unhappy with the fact that the country was being ruled by the Manchu minority. This influenced many individuals to take arms against the leadership in an attempt to establish the fact that the majority of Chinese individuals were determined to be led by a person whom they identified with.

The revolutionaries were greatly assisted as a result of the fact that the new emperor, Puyi, was a child, and was thus not competent to face them as an experienced ruler. A series of financial failures accompanied by the fact that the rebellion came to have a large number of supporters played an essential role in removing the Quing Dynasty and in establishing the Republic of China.

15. The Nazi-Soviet Pact

The German -- Soviet Pact was also known as the Ribbentrop-Molotov Pact and was divided in two acts. The first act, an economic one, was signed in August 19, 1939 and stated that Germany needs to exchange manufactured supplies for Soviet raw resources. The second act, signed in August 23, 1939, is known as the nonaggression pact and obliged the two countries to employ peaceful attitudes toward one another.

As a result of signing this act Germany was enabled to attack Poland without the intervention of Soviet army. On September 3, 1939, France and Britain, had to join the conflict with the purpose of defending Poland from Germany. These two events stayed at the base of World War II.

"The nonaggression pact of August 23 contained a secret protocol that provided for the partition of Poland and the rest of Eastern Europe into Soviet and German spheres of interest." (German-Soviet Pact) Following this pact the Soviet army took control over the Eastern Poland. The Soviet army attacked Finland on November 30, 1939 and conquered the borderlands. In the summer of 1940 the Soviet army moved towards the Eastern Europe with the help of the German army. The Soviets conquered Baltic and took control over the Bucovina and the Northern Bukovina from Romania.

France was defeated by the Germans during June 1940. In November 1940 the Axis alliance became bigger; Romania, Hungary, Slovakia joined the alliance. In 1941 Hitler provided his Eastern European allies with information about his plans to conquer the Soviet Union. Hitler had never seen the nonaggression pact as a durable one, he only saw it as a tactical and temporary plan. As a result, on December 18, 1940 he agreed with Directive 21 (Operation Barbarossa) which stated that Germany was about to invade Soviet Union. "From the beginning of operational planning, German military and police authorities intended to wage a war of annihilation against the Communist state as well as the Jews of the Soviet Union, whom they characterized as forming the racial basis for the Soviet state." (Ibidem)

16. The Cuban Missile Crisis

October 1962 was marked by a crucial period of thirteen days of waiting for a nonviolent resolution regarding the Cuban Missile Crisis. An American U-2 spy plane clandestinely took pictures of the nuclear missile locations. These nuclear missiles belonged to the Soviet Union and were placed on Cuban territory. After the president of the United States, John F. Kennedy, found out about this, he met with his advisors in an attempt to decide what his next actions would be.

After several meetings he "decided to place a naval blockade, or a ring of ships, around Cuba." (Cuban Missile Crisis) He took this action to with the purpose of stopping the Soviets bringing more missiles into the Cuba territory. He also asked for the removal and demolition of the locations. Kennedy decided to talk about this problem with the American public on October 22.

Both Nikita Khrushchev, the Soviet leader at the time, and John F. Kennedy, agreed that a nuclear war was not appealing. They signed a pact through which the Soviets would remove the missiles and destroy the locations if the U.S. promised not to invade Cuba. In another pact, which was made public after twenty-five years, the U.S. agreed to retrieve missiles from Turkey. "Although the Soviets removed their missiles from Cuba, they escalated the building of their military arsenal; the missile crisis was over, the arms race was not." (Ibidem)

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