Telecommuting There Are Many Different

Telecommuting

There are many different ways to look at telecommuting. Depending on the country one comes from, there are conflicting opinions on exactly what the word means, and the same is true of 'telework,' which has also been used to mean roughly the same thing as telecommuting. Some people define telecommuting as an arrangement that allows employees to carry out their work at a location away from the conventional office, either in the employee's home, satellite offices or neighborhood work centers (Qvortrup, 1998).

Still others define teleworking as a way of working using information and communication technologies in which work is carried out independent of location (Harris, 1998). There are four main ways in which people can telework. Firstly the employees can work from home, liaising with the office by using phone, email or fax (Nilles, 1996).

The second way could be when the employees split the time between home and office (Nilles, 1996). Thirdly there are certain types of employees for example the sales people, journalists etc. who carry out their work while they are on the move (Nilles, 1996). Fourthly, there is an arrangement called the tele-cottage, which provides neighborhood centers with shared computers and communications resources for the office workers (Nilles, 1996).

Teleworking can also be defined as performing job related work at a site away from the office, then electronically transferring the results to the office or another location (Nilles, 1996).

During the 1970s and 1980s, telework in Europe was often termed as 'Electronic Homework' and was either based on full time contract or on a freelance relationship with the employer (Nilles, 1996). It has been suggested that an adequate definition of teleworking should include three variables: the location of work, the use of electronic equipment, and the existence of a communications link to the employer or contractor (Nilles, 1996). It is work which relies primarily or to a large extent on the use of electronic equipment, the results of which work are communicated remotely to the employer or contractor. The remote communications link need not be a direct telecommunications link but could include the use of mail or courier services (Nilles, 1996).

The word 'Teleworking' together with various pseudonyms such as telecommuting, networking, flexi place or the electronic cottage, has been used to describe various types of work (Nilles, 1996). The term teleworking has also been divided into three sub-categories in order to specify the many different modes of telework which can be found today (Nilles, 1996). The three sub-categories included Electronic Homework, Telecommuting, and Flexi Place (Nilles, 1996).

This can be defined as working at home and delivering the work directly to an external customer using some of Telecommunication. Telecommuting is working away from the work place. (i.e could be from home, or on travel, and communicating with the employer with the assistance of computers and some mode of telecommunication) (Nilles, 1996). The Internet these days is a common mode of communication used for this purpose (Nilles, 1996). Flexi place involves no defined location of work (Nilles, 1996). A person on flexi place uses his computer and telecommunication device while working on the move (Nilles, 1996). (See table 1)

Table: 1

Subcategories of telework (Nilles, 1996).

Category

Definition

Electronic homework

Work at home delivered through telecommunications to an external customer

Telecommuting

Work for an employer performed at distance using computers and telecommunications.

Flexi place

Work performed 'everywhere' (at the office, at home, in travel) using computers and telecommunications

Teleworking is increasingly attracting the attention of large companies (Mirchandani, 1999). Research suggests that between 10%-15% of the companies have some employees who telework, with indications that this number will double within the next few years (Mirchandani, 1999). According to another recent survey more than 80% of the companies are expected to have employees who would telework by 2005, up from 54% today (Mirchandani, 1999).

Telework is a specific example of flexible work in general, and this flexible work arrangement offers significant benefits to the employers (Mirchandani, 1999). The concept of teleworking is gaining acceptance from the employers point-of-view according to the recent survey released in 2000 by the international Telework Association and Council, (ITAC) (Mirchandani, 1999). The survey suggested that teleworking saved the employers money, and provided their employees more flexibility and improved productivity (Mirchandani, 1999). This further has a corresponding effect on costs and reduction of absenteeism (Mirchandani, 1999). The survey also found that the employers saved up to 63% of the cost of previous absenteeism per teleworking employee (Mirchandani, 1999).

This was based on the average salary reported by teleworkers combined with the average number of days absent on which teleworkers were still able to work from home (Jackson & van der Wielson, 1998a). This also indicated that teleworkers were able to work from home for an average of half a day after completing their personal, child and adult related tasks, which gave them an advantage over those that had to take full days off to accomplish these tasks (Jackson & van der Wielson, 1998a).

The principle potential advantages of teleworking to the employers include productivity gains, reduction of the overhead costs, retention of the rare skills, increased workforce diversity, expanded labor pool productivity, fewer employee sick days and enhancement of the public image of the company (Jackson & van der Wielson, 1998a). Notice that this list includes reductions in absenteeism (fewer sick days) (Jackson & van der Wielson, 1998a).

Enhanced productivity was the most commonly cited benefit of teleworking for the employers (Jackson & van der Wielson, 1998a). There have been startling claims made about the productivity gains of telework particularly the home-based variety (Jackson & van der Wielson, 1998a). These claims range from 30% to as high as 100% (Jackson & van der Wielson, 1998a). In cases where a teleworker is not paid by results, but is on salary, there is still an emphasis on output, to a greater extent, than with onsite-staff (Jackson & van der Wielson, 1998a). This is the essence inevitable with a remote staff form of work supervision compared to the traditional over the shoulder method, and this may lead to an over-emphasis on the quantifiable aspects of the work carried out by the teleworkers (Jackson & van der Wielson, 1998a).

In some telework schemes, improvements in productivity formed a part of the case for introducing home-based working, which turned out to be over optimistic because of unforeseen consequences of the new working pattern (Jackson & van der Wielson, 1998a). Research by the International Telework Association and Council (ITAC) reported average productivity gains of 22% (Jackson & van der Wielson, 1998a). Other surveys show a range of 10 to 20% (Jackson & van der Wielson, 1998a). Of the company specific studies, at&T reported a 10% increase, Cisco a figure of 20%, IBM 10-15%, Travellers Insurance Company 22%, and Los Angeles County 37% (Jackson & van der Wielson, 1998a).

Employer's traditional reasons for using home workers or outworkers include reduction in the overhead costs for the company (Jackson & van der Wielson, 1998b). These usually include costs of heating, lighting and repair which are usually transferred to the individual worker (Jackson & van der Wielson, 1998b). Recent research shows that there is significant net cost reduction to employers, in most teleworking cases (Jackson & van der Wielson, 1998b). Costs and Benefits of telework to employers, can be discussed with primary attention to the two major quantifiable impacts - office space and productivity changes (Jackson & van der Wielson, 1998b).

It should be noted, however, that many companies now view telework in strategic, not just tactical or pragmatic terms (Jackson & van der Wielson, 1998b). That is, companies that have actively pursued telework see the nature of work changing in the 21st Century and believe that telework can be an integral part of enhancing the global competitiveness of the firm (Jackson & van der Wielson, 1998b). As some describe it, the structure of the company in the information economy will change from a facilities-based asset driven organization to a knowledge network (Jackson & van der Wielson, 1998b).

Knowledge assets are becoming a larger part of not only high-tech companies, but also service and manufacturing companies as well (Jackson & van der Wielson, 1998b). Seen in this context; telework becomes much more than a cost-cutting measure to reduce office space, or a way to improve productivity by removing the distractions of the traditional office environment (Jackson & van der Wielson, 1998b). Rather, companies who make telework available to its employees view the work day as neither constrained by time (the 8-hour day) or space (the traditional office) (Jackson & van der Wielson, 1998b).

This helps the company both locally and globally, because workers that are happy and enjoy their jobs work much harder and do more for the company than workers who are dissatisfied (Jackson & van der Wielson, 1998b).

Telework is not just a benefit for private companies (Di Martino & Wirth, 1990). Local, state and federal governments and public agencies employ nearly 30% of the workforce, and since there are so many workers in the government sector, it is advantageous for them to use teleworking (Di Martino & Wirth, 1990).

For employers, in addition to reduced office costs and increased productivity, organizations that have telework programs cite a number of other benefits that warrant attention (Di Martino & Wirth, 1990). Work satisfaction criteria that many organizations take very seriously given the increased importance of human resources in today's knowledge-driven economy shows dramatic increases (Di Martino & Wirth, 1990). Surveys taken by many companies show increases in work satisfaction of 20% or more among those that are allowed to utilize telework (Di Martino & Wirth, 1990).

Work quality also improves with lower error rates among teleworkers (Di Martino & Wirth, 1990). Positive impacts are also demonstrated in the form of lower turnover and decreased absenteeism (Di Martino & Wirth, 1990). A Pacific Bell study found that teleworkers were absent 25% fewer days than their traditional colleagues (Di Martino & Wirth, 1990). All of these factors reinforce one another and lead to improved productivity figures (Di Martino & Wirth, 1990).

Teleworking benefits employers in other ways as well (Di Martino & Wirth, 1990). Organizations can use these methods to tap new labour pools: for example, disabled workers, people who do not want to relocate or commute long distances, a parent with a newborn child who otherwise would opt to not work (Di Martino & Wirth, 1990). Telework also allows an organization considerable flexibility in staffing temporary jobs by outsourcing work to virtual workers (Di Martino & Wirth, 1990).

At the same time, companies report several drawbacks with telework (Di Martino & Wirth, 1990). The principal potential disadvantages to the organization include lack of commitment to the organisational goals and culture and problems of communication and supervision (Di Martino & Wirth, 1990). Communications is the number one concern of employees (Di Martino & Wirth, 1990). This is followed by teamwork difficulties and concerns about career advancement opportunities, which is a drawback for employees, but also affects how they feel about their job and therefore how much time and effort they put into it (Di Martino & Wirth, 1990). Ultimately, this affects the company (Di Martino & Wirth, 1990).

The issue of supervising can be addressed through training programs and the gradual process of becoming comfortable with managing teleworkers and virtual teams (Haddon, 1998). In fact, a recent study found that already "83% of all American employees work at a distance or with a colleague who does (Haddon, 1998). Of this number, more than half - 51% -- are physically away from the office at least some of the time (Haddon, 1998)."

Employees also benefit from Telework in a number of ways (Haddon, 1998). The principle advantages of telework to the employees include autonomy, increased job satisfaction, freedom from time constraints, bridging the career gap, obtaining a better balance between work and home life and eliminating commuting costs and time (Haddon, 1998). Employees stand to benefit from telework in a number of work and non-work related ways (Haddon, 1998). These time savings translate into "quality of work life benefits, quality of family life benefits, quality of social life benefits, and career development opportunities (Haddon, 1998)."

In respect to work related benefits, teleworkers report greater work satisfaction, higher morale, and a greater commitment to work, all of which leads to greater productivity (Haddon, 1998). One recent study showed that technology workers would "give up their fast-track careers, opportunities for promotion into management and even rises if only they could have one thing: the opportunity, if only part time, to work from home (Haddon, 1998)."

Some of the advantages of teleworking include (Ambry, 1988):

Autonomy

Increased job satisfaction

Freedom from time constraints

Bridging the career gap

Obtaining a better balance between work and home life

Eliminating commuting costs

Quality of work life benefits

Quality of family life benefits

Quality of social life benefits

Career development opportunities

Greater work satisfaction

Higher morale

Greater commitment to work (Ambry, 1988).

Other advantages include such unexpected issues as the reduction of pollution in the air from less vehicles on the road and the ability to expand business while still taking care of the environment and the economy (Piskurich, 1996).

On the negative side, telework has a lot of disadvantages for the individual (Piskurich, 1996). Perhaps the most frequently expressed concerns are those of feelings of isolation from one's fellow workers and being out-of-sight and out-of-mind (Piskurich, 1996). These two concerns are inter-related (Piskurich, 1996). For many, the workplace goes some way towards satisfying the higher needs of self-esteem and social acceptance and may even allow self-actualization (Piskurich, 1996).

However, a person who participates at a minimum level in the organization is considered to be a "stunted individual" even though he may be satisfactorily fulfilling all of the needs hierarchy outside it (Piskurich, 1996). This perception has persisted and is not an uncommon one in the business environment (Piskurich, 1996). Accordingly, it is thought that such an individual, demonstrating a lack of commitment to the organisation by working in a less conventional manner such as working from home, is likely to be overlooked for important tasks and promotion and may not be taken into the confidence of his immediate supervisors and managers (Piskurich, 1996). This is in turn, likely to increase the feelings of isolation and the inability to fulfil social needs (Piskurich, 1996).

Constraints on the individual that can be related to the organisation include lack of employer support, managerial disapproval, failure to organise work to allow telecommuters to partake in a wide range of tasks and take part in attractive or special projects (Piskurich, 1996). Even if senior management supports the concept, it is important for the local supervisor to support the individual teleworker (Piskurich, 1996).

Absence from the conventional workplace can result in staff not being informed about office politics, changes in managerial priorities and opportunities (Schettler, 2002) (Piskurich, 1996). Other disadvantages of telework include poor pay and fringe benefits, increase in conflicts between work and family life, increase in routine tasks for the employee's increase of isolation leading to career marginalization (Piskurich, 1996).

Quality of family life benefits and quality of social life benefits are impossible to quantify, yet anecdotal evidence suggests that the freedom to structure the 24-day is a tremendous benefit for balancing work, family and social commitments (Piskurich, 1996).

Despite the corporate, individual and societal advantages, telecommuting is not believed by all to be an actual employee benefit (Piskurich, 1996). "It's not a benefit like life insurance that everyone's got to have (Piskurich, 1996). it's a work option that both the manager and the employee come to an agreement on (Piskurich, 1996)." Hence, in the recent years, there has been an increase in the demand from the employers for flexible working arrangements such as teleworking, which helps the workers achieve a more satisfactory work life balance (Piskurich, 1996).

There are technology issues that are also present in telecommuting, such as security, the operating environment, and getting remote access to what is needed. The rest of the paper will be devoted to looking at those areas, as well as looking at cyber ethics, as they are an important component of today's increasingly Web-based business, and they are an area that has often been overlooked when it comes to teaching individuals about what types of behavior they should be engaging in.

Because the access to communication technology and computers has been increasing so strongly utilizing technologies to work somewhere other than the central office is becoming more significant for many companies (Nilles, Carlson, Gray, & Hanneman, 1976). Even though there were many definitions of it, as has been mentioned, it is generally called telework or telecommuting regardless of the way it takes place (Nilles, Carlson, Gray, & Hanneman, 1976). Since has been around since the 1970s it is not a new concept but the interest in it has grown very rapidly within recent years (Nilles, Carlson, Gray, & Hanneman, 1976). There is a much larger volume of literature on the issue now then there has been in the past (Nilles, Carlson, Gray, & Hanneman, 1976).

When looked at from an international level the quantity of data that is available on telecommuting, as well as the quality of data, is somewhat difficult to detect (Nilles, Carlson, Gray, & Hanneman, 1976). There are only a few countries that have done any substantial research, and most of it has been here in the United States (Nilles, Carlson, Gray, & Hanneman, 1976). In Australia, for example, most of the information that is offered is very sporadic and limited to only certain companies (Nilles, Carlson, Gray, & Hanneman, 1976). One study that was done in that country indicated that only 5% of adults that were employed at a particular business were able to access the server of that particular employer from their home over the Internet (Nilles, Carlson, Gray, & Hanneman, 1976). Only 4% of these adults were allowed to work from home because they had some type of teleworking or telecommuting agreement with their employer (Nilles, Carlson, Gray, & Hanneman, 1976).

Even though this data was relatively limited it did indicate that telecommuting in Australia is much lower than it is in various parts of Europe and in the United States (Nilles, Carlson, Gray, & Hanneman, 1976). Looking at the state of telecommuting internationally and what research has been done into it is very important although providing a comprehensive survey would be very difficult (Nilles, Carlson, Gray, & Hanneman, 1976). What is important, however, is to look at some of the different perspectives in some of the different texts that have recently been written on telecommuting. Also significant is to look at some of the key problems that may be seen for regulation, research, and policy when regarding the future of telecommuting.

As has been mentioned, there are different definitions of telecommuting that are used throughout literature and there are different implications for many of these definitions. There are various key issues that are raised in these such as the autonomy that an employee has, how much managerial control is given over that employee, and the implementation of the telecommuting (Probert & Wajeman, 1988). In discussing this, the researchers that have dealt with this issue have used many different definitions (Probert & Wajeman, 1988). Some of these have already been mentioned above, but it is important for analysis of the studies discussed here that other important factors are mentioned (Probert & Wajeman, 1988). All definitions, naturally, reference telecommunications and the use of computers, but the other three important factors that have also been seen are listed here (Probert & Wajeman, 1988).

The minimum amount of time for work that is spent at teleworking (Probert & Wajeman, 1988).

The specific location where the telework or telecommuting is conducted (Probert & Wajeman, 1988).

The nature of the specific relationship that is had between the organization and the telecommuting individual, particularly whether this telecommuting individual is a subcontractor or is considered an employee of the organization (Probert & Wajeman, 1988).

Many authors indicate that telework or telecommuting uses technology and deals with a home-based location (McCallum, 1998; Mirchandani, 1999; Johnson & Botterman, 1998; Bussing, 1998). This is broadly true but the flexi-place arrangements that were mentioned earlier are also part of telecommuting (Christensen, 1992). So are electronic homework, mobile work, neighborhood centers, and satellite centers (Christensen, 1992). All of these can be included in the definition of telecommuting if it is broadened somewhat (Christensen, 1992). Many of the definitional problems that take place where telework is concerned are linked very closely to many of the industrial issues that are also raised by it (Christensen, 1992). Several of these specific issues, such as how to maintain standards for occupational health and safety, are very familiar because they have been associated with any type of work that was performed away from the central workplace or office for a long time (Christensen, 1992). This included traditional work that was home-based (Christensen, 1992).

Other issues that deal was telecommuting, such as the security of data, are much more specific to that type of work (Christensen, 1992). Some of the further consequences that come from utilizing various different definitions of telecommuting are that comparisons for cross study are not often possible and many of the estimates that are given as to how many individuals actually do telecommute vary a great deal (Christensen, 1992). There have been predictions in the past that telecommuting will be adopted in a massive fashion and that almost all workers will work only from home (Christensen, 1992). This has proved to be extremely unrealistic regardless of any definition that can be placed on telecommuting (Christensen, 1992). Some of the terminology is also very different for telecommuting across various nations and this can confuse things as well (Christensen, 1992).

Usually, British, Australian, Canadian, and European researchers and other individuals will use the term telework while those in the United States will use the term telecommuting. Many believed that this particular distinction between the two is only semantic but this is not actually the case. Many of the campaigns that have been utilized in an effort to reduce West Coast air pollution and traffic congestion in the United States have used the term telework instead of telecommuting. However, once individuals get outside of the United States the idea of telecommuting tends to be seen only as a subset of telework. In other words, it applies only where telework is introduced and is designed simply to avoid the necessity of commuting to the workplace.

Many individuals have interpreted telework or telecommuting merely as an extension of the traditional idea of home-based work which has origins that go back to pre-industrial times (Dawson & Turner, 1989). Telecommuting has therefore often been promoted as combining family and work responsibilities, much like many other types of home-based work, and has been targeted particularly at women (Dawson & Turner, 1989). Some researchers have even suggested that the idea of the double workload that is usually carried by women that have careers and families would be avoided to some extent because the divisions between family and work would be broken down (Dawson & Turner, 1989). However, other researchers have indicated that doing telework or telecommuting at the home cannot actually be viewed as meeting the responsibilities for child care and other housekeeping duties that are necessary (Dawson & Turner, 1989).

The alternative workplace of the home still predominates but there are other locations such as mobile centers or satellite centers that are becoming more significant to those who telecommute (Campbell & Grantham, 1998). These individuals must be able to perform their work online, which means not only utilizing e-mail but accessing the server through their office as well (Campbell & Grantham, 1998). Some definitions of telework or telecommuting also include individuals that utilize computers that are not networked to the office and then mail a disk or hardcopy into the office but this broadens the definition of telework so much that many researchers and others are not comfortable with this idea (Campbell & Grantham, 1998). Also debated in the telecommuting world is what has led to the extensive growth (Campbell & Grantham, 1998). In other words, has the growth that is seen in telework recently been led by employees, or has it been led by employers instead?

Particularly interesting to this idea is the relationship that takes place between the managerial control and the teleworking individuals (Benston, 1969). Some proponents of the idea see telework as being a great opportunity for managers to be more innovative in how they manage their employees and they see it as very significant that they no longer directly supervise these individuals (Kompast & Wagner, 1998). Others criticize the idea and say that management control will become much stronger in the future through surveillance in a computerized fashion or a return to the piece rate idea that used to be utilized for individuals that were paid not by the hour or by a set salary but by the pieces of work that they did (Kompast & Wagner, 1998).

Most telecommuting jobs require a contract, which is often called a task performance contract (Kompast & Wagner, 1998). The employee that enters into this contract must have a very high degree of loyalty to the company and he or she must understand that the work that is done from home may lead to other impositions that the employee will have to deal with outside of the hours that he or she would normally work (Kompast & Wagner, 1998). These may threaten the privacy of that individual's residence and make it feel less like a home and more like an office (Kompast & Wagner, 1998). In other words the employee may have to work after hours, may have to accept phone calls or clients after hours, or may have to allow people into his or her home that he or she would not normally allow as opposed to meeting those individuals at the office (Kompast & Wagner, 1998). Telecommuting has many benefits but there are things that many individuals do not think about when they take these kinds of jobs.

They only realize them later when they become aggravated at some of the different things that they have to do and how difficult it can sometimes be to balance what is done at home and what is done at work with issues such as child care, housecleaning, and other items. Some believe that telecommuting is potentially going to reconfigure much of what is termed the social geography of the workplace (Kompast & Wagner, 1998). The time and place that individuals work including the relationships that these individuals have between their work site, their work, and their non-work time may all be changed (Kompast & Wagner, 1998). Because of the definitional problems that are so strong, however, much of the analysis that would be done into comparing different types of telecommuting and telework and how well it is actually succeeding has not been conducted (Kompast & Wagner, 1998).

These definitional problems go hand-in-hand with many of the differences across nations in how much data and research has actually been done. Because of this there are three specific main categories that the literature on telecommuting can be found in. The first one of these is implementation manuals. The second, academic research, and the third various policy documents that are produced by specific agencies, usually on a national level. Some of the advantages and disadvantages for telecommuting have already been looked at, but since all individuals that do research into this issue have different ideas about these advantages and disadvantages it is important to discuss various advantages and disadvantages here that have been hypothesized by other researchers as well as principles that are extremely important for managing what are sometimes deemed to be invisible employees. First, various studies have shown that there are three distinct categories of advantages for telecommuting. These will all be discussed here, followed by the disadvantages that researchers have found to be most frequently cited.

For employees, the advantages include reduced time for travel, reduced costs based on eating lunches out and purchasing more clothing, improved opportunities for work, much more flexible hours, a better balance of life between family and work, and a greater access to work for individuals that have specific difficulties or handicaps which are not easily accommodated by an office environment (Nilles, 1998).

For employers, increased productivity, enhanced customer service, cost savings, improved motivation, reduced turnover in the labor force, and a flexibility in staffing can be seen (Nilles, 1998).

For the community, the amount of people that stay home and work reduces the pollution and traffic congestion on the roads, and much of the employment can be decentralized to regional and suburban areas instead of all being largely configured in one central urban area where most of the businesses are considered to be located (Nilles, 1998).

The list that follows are the most commonly cited disadvantages to teleworking or telecommuting, as found by one research study, and reduced once again into three specific categories.

For employees, disadvantages include isolation and the possible loneliness that comes with this, being a workaholic, conflicts with other workers, distractions that often interfere with the work one is trying to do, a reduction in access to services and office equipment that may be necessary to complete a task, diminished participation in the culture of the office and therefore career development that is inhibited, no actual break from the workplace, loss of a specific office on-site, and higher utility bills in the household (Nilles, 1998).

For employers, some of the disadvantages can include a loss of having any type of direct control over employees, less contact on a face-to-face basis, problems with technical hitches that may occur off-site, a decreased flexibility in organizational emergency situations, a need for coordination and planning on a greater level, and suitability only for certain specific jobs (Nilles, 1998).

For the community, disadvantages include a possible loss of jobs in some areas as well as a loss of revenue and investment from urban centers where most businesses were originally located (Nilles, 1998).

All of these issues are things to consider because both advantages and disadvantages are very significant when it comes to telecommuting. There are also seven specific principles that should be discussed here that are utilized for managing many of these employees that are often not seen. These include (McGrath & Houlihan, 1998):

Having consistent guidelines when it comes to policy.

Having regular time designated in the office for teleworkers.

Focusing on the productivity of an individual as opposed to his or her physical presence.

Evaluating the ability that a manager has to actually effectively manage those who are not in the office.

Written agreements with teleworkers or telecommuters detailing what it is that they must do and what is expected of them.

Prevention of any type of discrimination based on the fact that individuals are not actively in the office much of the time.

Introducing telework into a specific company only for use in certain jobs and for valid reasons (McGrath & Houlihan, 1998).

Despite the fact that there are so may advantages and disadvantages listed, and despite the fact of these seven principles, which are certainly important, there is little contextualization in much of the literature on telecommuting. Quite often, there are very general statements that are made regarding telecommuting or telework and these assume that implementing something is desirable and easy by looking at only a single model. However, telecommuting is a very flexible mode of work, and like other flexible modes there are many different ideas within it when it comes to industries, the type of work performed, and other contexts.

Because telecommuting varies across nations so strongly most researchers believe that social, political, economic, and cultural factors all relate to it in some way (Nilles, 1998). One book that deals with how to manage telework falls into the category of an implementation manual (Nilles, 1998). It is designed for managers and the individual that wrote it did a lot of consulting work for both regular industry and government in Europe and in North America (Nilles, 1998). He was actually the individual that coined the term 'telecommuting' and developed many strategies for it in the 1970s as a response to the traffic congestion in Southern California and the energy crisis (Nilles, 1998). Ever since then, this gentleman has been predicting telework to take off and have massive growth, and the enthusiasm that he has for this idea is still very present in the work that he has done most recently (Nilles, 1998).

Many of the predictions that he gave previously did not come to pass but strong and even spectacular growth across the next 30 years is still predicted (Nilles, 1998). According to him, there were only 20 million telecommuters all across the world in 1995 but by the year 2030, he predicts that there will be 360 million (Nilles, 1998). This is a very large increase and it is not yet known whether it will come to pass (Nilles, 1998).

He also generally defined telecommuting as being only a subset of telework but the terms are used quite frequently on an interchangeable basis throughout his work (Nilles, 1998). He believes that almost every individual is a teleworker at least part of the time (Nilles, 1998). He indicates that there are four main forms of telework which include satellite telework centers, combinations of various ways, home-based, and local telework centers (Nilles, 1998). The main point of the book, however, is to show that corporate profitability can indeed be increased by telework (Nilles, 1998).

There are many different operational issues that are faced when managers implement telecommuting, however, and only certain types of occupations that work well with it (Nilles, 1998). It is also true to say that certain personality types do better with telework than others do and some managers cannot easily trust employees to do work in their own home (Nilles, 1998). Most of those that deal with telecommuting are expected to work within the office environment at least two to three days per week (Nilles, 1998). Face-to-face contact is important and even though there are plenty of chances for e-mail it is not deemed to be an adequate substitute (Nilles, 1998). Telecommuting is a definite area of interest for many individuals but there are many things that these same individuals must think about when they get involved with it because how to manage their data, how to deal with security, and many other issues are a definite concern to those who do telecommuting and to those that employ them (Nilles, 1998).

For example, many network servers have a lot of redundancy so that information is not lost (Kugelmass, 1995). This is very important to companies that have a lot of data that they need to refer to and a lot of information that they need to have close at hand. They often have contingency plans for power failures and countless other issues that may come up. However, the computer of an individual at home may not be capable of these kinds of things and therefore there is a chance of a lot of data being lost, corrupted, or otherwise damaged because the individual that was working from home did not have adequate protection in the event of data loss, hackers, or other issues. The hackers and other issues that must be dealt with here leads logically to a side discussion of cyber ethics.

Cyber ethics are often also called computer ethics and they are a new area of education for technology (Friedman & Nissenbaum, 1996). Even though this paper deals with older individuals that are in the workforce, it is important to talk about cyber ethics in conjunction with younger people and education, because that is where they need to learn about this issue. If they do not, it will be much more difficult to teach them once they are in the workforce, especially if they are telecommuting and therefore not watched as closely as they would be if they worked in an office environment.

The issue of cyber ethics is quite often neglected in schools both in dealing with the instruction of students and dealing with informing the faculty of problems that can arise (Friedman & Nissenbaum, 1996). Defining what cyber ethics actually is can also be a challenge because the term is very broad (Friedman & Nissenbaum, 1996). It encompasses plagiarism, privacy, copyrighting, and hacking (Friedman & Nissenbaum, 1996). Computer ethics is often seen to deal with the use of telecommunication and storage devices for data (Friedman & Nissenbaum, 1996). Much of the concern about cyber ethics recently has to do with public school systems because it appears that individuals in these schools are not being taught proper cyber ethics (Friedman & Nissenbaum, 1996).

It is very important that adults and students alike utilize information that deals with cyber ethics so that they are more aware of how to handle problems that may arise (Friedman & Nissenbaum, 1996). Many of these students are not aware of how to use the Internet ethically and responsibly and because of this they often do things that are detrimental to themselves or others without actually realizing it (Friedman & Nissenbaum, 1996). Within the last decade or so there have been numerous incidence of hacking that have involved young individuals and have received strong public attention (Friedman & Nissenbaum, 1996). EBay, Yahoo, CNN, and other various sites were attacked not all that long ago and viruses have apparently run rampant on the Internet in recent months and years (Friedman & Nissenbaum, 1996).