Pollution tolerance and ecosystem health in the Salmon River

Salmon River Ecosystem

Earthworms are the most tolerant and crawfish are the least tolerant of pollutions and reduced dissolved oxygen.

The loss of riparian areas from livestock grazing reduces the capacity of the river to clean itself. The addition of nitrogen from fertilizers causes acidization of the water. In addition to the polluted waterways, nitrogen contributes to smog and greenhouse gases, which are bad for human health and the economy. Costs are attributed to air pollution health and medical issues and cleanup efforts.

Deforestation can invite invasive plants into the ecosystem, reduce air quality around the rivers and streams, and increase the runoff, which further pollutes the water systems and decreases the level of dissolved oxygen in the water. The species that live in the aquatic ecosystems change as a result of the degraded water quality.

Ecosystems have the capacity to renew themselves and are able to overcome some pollution if the levels are not so high that they overcome the natural processes. When water moves through the soil in riparian forests and the wetlands, it is cleaned by the natural organisms and the physical filters of sand, gravel, root systems, and the like. Commercial agriculture deposits chemicals in the soil that is washed into the ecosystems, where some of it is eliminated and levels are reduced.

5. In order for salmon to be healthy in streams that are exposed to agricultural and industrial pollutants, it is necessary for the riparian forest conservation to be at 75 m or more, for pollution to remain above 4.0 parts per million (ppm), and for pollution levels to be at 3 or above. The best levels for maintaining the biodiversity of the Salmon River ecosystem are riparian forest conservation to be at 75 m or more, for pollution to remain above 4.25 parts per million (ppm), and for pollution levels to be at 2 or above. The crawfish and the fairy shrimp act as "marker" species for the riparian ecosystem (they are like the canaries introduced into mines),and when their numbers drop, it is an indication that the river sediment is carrying too much pollution and the fish are dying in higher numbers than is healthy for the ecosystem.

6. Organic farming could substantially reduce the amount of nitrate leaching that is contributing to nitrogen pollution. Research carried out by the Washington State University found that conventional fertilization techniques contributed to 4 to 5 times more nitrate leaching annually than did organic treatments.

Environmental Footprint

1. Use of services is the highest contributor to my environmental footprint, followed by food and shelter.

2. If everyone lived like me, it would take 4 and one/half earths to provide enough resources. A) My housing and transportation use does not include much alternative use of energy. As a result, my impact on the earth's climate due to dependence on oil and gas is greater than it might otherwise be. B) I don't greatly impact the health of ecosystems or biodiversity as I reuse, repurpose, and recycle. However, my home is built mostly of wood, which has a great initial impact on forests and ecosystems. C) I shop locally and garden seasonally, so my impact on human resources is less than it might otherwise be.

3. By eating fewer foods that come from animals, buying only recyclable products with less packaging, using energy efficient appliance and alternative sources of energy, and using public transportation instead of driving my car, I could reduce to 3.6 the number of earths needed to sustain my standard of living for everyone. If everyone reduced the services they require, which in this quiz are predominantly related to the gas, oil, and electricity consumption, the savings in terms of impact on the planet would be great. The forests would be able to regenerate, which would lead to cleaner water and air. In addition, growing food and eating food produced locally consumes much less petrocarbons and reduces spoilage and waste which go into landfills.

4. If I relocated to a place where the infrastructure provided better transportation options, I could significantly reduce my carbon footprint and also enhance my quality of life. Commuting is a strong detriment to living a higher quality lifestyle.

Land Use in Pinchot Lab

Introduction

The research question for this study is how does land use changes, particularly deforestation and urban sprawl impact plant and animal communities, the predator / prey relationships, species diversity, and quality of life for humans in the suburban community of Pinchot? The hypothesis tested in the study was as follows: Ho (null hypothesis) = the percentage of fragmentation does not impact the sustainability of biodiversity and ecosystem services in the forest surrounding the community of Pinchot. Ha (alternative hypothesis) = fragmentation levels of 50% and 75% will not achieve sustainable levels of biodiversity and ecosystem services in the forest surrounding the community of Pinchot.

Methods

Two plant species and two animal species known to be ecologically important were considered under different conditions of fragmentation. The impact of fragmentation on the forest reserve and the community was explored through an iterative process of graphing the changes in plant and animal populations that occurred as the fragmentation percentages were changed in the model. Only one species was added at a time and the corresponding changes in species populations were recorded at the time of each change.

Results

The computer modeling program indicated that under conditions of zero fragmentation, a desirable balance was achieved for all the species populations measured, and the predator / prey relationship was sustainable. Spiny firegrass (376) was held in check by a healthy bluebunch wheat flower growth (8778), which was sufficient to sustain a generous deer and elk population (2167), and a wolf population (462) sufficient to keep the herbivore populations within desirable bounds. An increase in fragmentation to 25% resulted in similarly sustainable populations and species balance (bluebunch wheat flower at 7993; deer and elk population at 3488, and wolf population at 416), with only a moderate undesirable increase in spiny firegrass (906). In contrast, modeling at the 50% fragmentation level resulted in these population counts (spiny firegrass at 5416; bluebunch wheat flower at 4837; deer and elk population at 4668, and wolf population at 235), and modeling at the 75% fragmentation level showed these population counts (spiny firegrass at 10114; bluebunch wheat flower at 811; deer and elk population at 9337, and wolf population at 5). Fragmentation at 75% is not sustainable for even the short-term, and fragmentation at 50% results in serious encroachment by the noxious weed known as spiny firegrass and a herbivore population that will overgraze and be particularly mobile -- crossing highways and feeding on landscape plants -- as they search for suitable food. The null hypothesis is rejected.

The wolf population was reduced to a threatened species level when fragmentation reached 75%. Changes to the herbivore population brought about a cascade of changes in the ecosystem as shown by the increase in spiny fireweed, and the decrease in the wolf population and the decrease in their preferred grazing plant in response to the increased numbers of deer and elk in the ecosystem. This cascade effect reached its apex at 75% fragmentation.

Conclusions and Management Recommendations

This report recommends that a fragmentation be allowed to advance no further than 25% of the current levels in order to conserve the area's biodiversity and ecosystem services. This level of fragmentation still permits some development in the area but significantly curbs urban sprawl. These important considerations will enable the community of Pinchot to continue to capitalize on their natural resources, for instance outdoor sports and conservative forest management which would produce some revenue.

(01) Water Cycle - The global water cycle provides renewable water, but a number of factors affect how much freshwater is available for human consumption. Describe these factors and circumstances. When do human interventions in water availability pose serious problems to freshwater accessibility? (1page)

Water is constantly moving between the bodies of water, rivers and streams, wetlands, and atmospheric spheres through the processes that generally conserve the amount of water but often change its form. These water cycle dynamics include the flow of groundwater, evaporation, precipitation, infiltration, and melting. The amount of freshwater that is available for human consumption is dependent upon these natural dynamics, but other factors and circumstances impact availability, too. Accessibility remains one of the primary variables impacting available freshwater supplies, as approximately one-fifth of the globe's freshwater is tied up in the polar regions and the largely impenetrable jungles of South America.

Storage is another variable that impacts water availability, as a considerable amount of freshwater is stored in manmade reservoirs that would otherwise be lost to the natural freshwater cycle. The concepts of use and consumption are important when considering freshwater availability as, presumably, much water that is used can be reused, sometimes indefinitely, or used and then consumed. The amount of pollutants in water impacts the ability of people to treat and re-use water that otherwise might not be immediately consumed.

People substantively impact the availability of water through their agricultural, industrial / commercial, and residential use. Water overuse is one of the most common issues of water availability. Misconceptions about the size of aquifers or changes in climate and associated patterns of precipitation can mislead people and result in water wastage and a lack of proper water storage infrastructure. Water use is uneven across the globe, reflecting different the cultural, industrial, economic, social, and political forces that impinge on equitable accessibility.

(02) Age of Oil - In Chapter Six of Contemporary Environmental Issues, the past century has been referred to as the Age of Oil. As we reach a possible peak in oil production, what alternatives are forming? Consider the role of OPEC, perhaps, in reorganizing and monitoring oil production. What do you think is the most viable way to address after effects of this possible peak? (1 page)

The world is still staggeringly dependent on oil and natural gas. It is interesting that, as oil production is slowing and developed countries are aggressively tackling ways to substitute technology that does not rely on petrochemicals for transportation and utilities, area in underdeveloped countries are increasing their demand for petrochemicals. China's new prosperity and increasingly higher rates of gasoline consumption -- reflecting the new place in the Chinese economy of the automobile -- demonstrate this phenomenon. Technology based on petrochemicals is a rolling consumer bubble that shifts from one country to another, from one population to another, on the basis of perceived ecological needs and desired commercial applications.

It is difficult to consider OPEC as a benign organizer and monitoring agency for making the necessary adjustments in the discovery, refining, and distribution of oil. This is particularly true since great shares of oil resources belong to countries that have not been reliably altruistic with regard to developing alternative energy sources. Rather, the issue at stake is how to make the necessary conversion from an oil-dependent economy to one that runs smoothly on alternative forms of energy. The technology and the resources are currently available to make substantive changes in the social fabric with regard to alternative means of transportation and alternative means of heating and cooling homes. The incentives seem insufficient to cause people to break free from their hide-bound ways and begin to behave in ways that are good for them and good for the planet. Electric cars are now sufficiently speedy enough and with sufficient range between charging to garner the attention of many consumers -- the problem is price more than anything else. The manufacturing subsidies and the purchase rebates and alternative energy credits are not sufficiently deep as to make the change to electric cars happen with the same efficiency as purchasing the next Harry Potter book or the next Angry Birds media game.