Land use and finance in sustainable local development

Land Use Sustainable Energy

This annotated bibliography will look at current research on the production, distribution and use of renewable energy technologies in the U.S. The work stresses the breadth of such research as well as the breadth and scale of its real implementation and potential implementation. This researcher tried to seek out renewable technologies and issues that demonstrate the potential as well as the variety of research and implementation that is being done in the U.S. In the area of renewable energy as well as discussions of the types of political, social and economic barriers that exists and will likely limit progress for both good and bad reasons. There are also a few articles stressing the need to further research some alternatives before implementation due in large part to the need to make sure they will or are not causing more harm than they are doing good in the race toward energy independence on a local and national level and a reduction in planetary harm being done in the race for human used energy. The work discusses everything from the destruction of municipal public waste and conversion of it to usable energy to the necessary demands of the local and national political forces to change policy and redirect it to better answer the call for renewable resources. It is also important to note that I tried to look for novel technologies, and though the traditional known renewable are discussed some cutting edge research on presently under represented technologies is stressed.

(2009). Sun, wind, geothermal - now microbes?. Ecos, (152), 31. Retrieved from GreenFILE database.

The article reports on the application of bioelectrochemical system (BEC) on microbial fuel cell (MFC) for electrical generation. The research is through the application of wastewater treatment, where the system utilizes electrochemical capture systems to glean the electrical energy from the chemical reactions that are associated with the breakdown of microbial matter in the waste water. The system not only effectively recycles the water to a reintroduction level but also captures the bioelectrochemical energy through the use of a microbial fuel cell (MFC) this set of discs rotating through the waste water is similar to those which have been used in the past for secondary and tertiary waste water treatment for more than 30 years utilize the introduction of microbes into the water to further break down waste, by adding a minimal amount of technology the same system can be 15% more efficient and has the potential for becoming a full scale MFC.

For the purpose of better understanding renewable fuel source options this work is a substantial expansion of the ideation regarding the types of resources we already know about, i.e. solar, nuclear, hydro, wind and even methane recovery from waste. The researchers featured in this work are clearly thinking outside the box, even though the concepts have been around since NASA proposed a similar idea in the 1960s to help resolve the human and solid waste problem in spacecraft. This application is clearly illuminating and the article offers substantial evidence of its efficacy.

Brune, D., Lundquist, T., & Benemann, J. (2009). Microalgal biomass for greenhouse gas reductions: potential for replacement of fossil fuels and animal feeds. Journal of Environmental Engineering, 135(11), 1136-1144. doi:10.1061/(ASCE)EE.1943-7870.0000100.

According to the Brune, Lundquist & Benemann current feedstock debates for biofuel include challenges to replacing food with fuel during the production of feedstocks for biofuel. The argument is that by utilizing arable land that could be used to grow crops the feedstock industry may be causing more problems than it solves with its biofuel. According to the researchers the answer lays in seeking biomass feedstock that does not require arable land for production. The work looks very closely at a form of feedstock, microalgal, that could solve rather than cause problems by using undesirable land, such as brackish water, or salinated and even polluted standing water to produce it as well as allowing the system to recover valuable resources from otherwise unused water and to possibly even reuse CO2 from power-plant flue gas or other CO2 sources that might otherwise go into the atmosphere. The work claims that such biomass is currently unused, can reduce greenhouse gas production and can even resolve issues regarding animal waste and sludge from industry. The researchers also claim that the 20% oil (for biofuel) and 50% protein waste (could be further generative as the protein could then be used to make animal feed) and the additional 30% algae would be used to produce methane gas which would again be recovered to generate energy. The work also stresses that it would be creating this model in close proximity to a current natural gas plant which would provide the necessary CO2 by scrubbing its flue. The researchers estimate that the savings of green house gas emissions would be between 36.3% and 26.3% as some energy would be required in the process. Lastly the device would also require 53 tons of municipal sludge, waste paper or animal manure per day to operate. Though the researchers do not discuss the financial costs of such a system they contend that the research is in very early stages and will require more research and productivity testing to be realized in any substantive manner.

DiStefano, T., & Belenky, L. (2009). Life-cycle analysis of energy and greenhouse gas emissions from anaerobic biodegradation of municipal solid waste. Journal of Environmental Engineering, 135(11), 1097-1105. doi:10.1061/(ASCE)EE.1943-7870.0000098.

In this research study DiStefano & Belenky look at current landfill procedures in municipalities and compare the energy use and greenhouse gas emissions to a type of biodegradation system that would both eliminate solid waste or seriously reduce it and create usable fuel from it. The type of system they used as a research comparison is an anaerobic biodegradation unit that will transform the greenhouse gas from waste into usable methane. The solid waste that was treated was biodegradable. The researchers claim that landfill space would be considerably reduced and saved for non-biodegradable waste. The review of pilot and full scale studies demonstrates that 127 million ton of biodegradable waste could be converted to 5.9 billion units of methane with and estimate value of $1.5 billion dollars per year and produce enough energy to serve 1.3 million U.S. households or 15 billion kilowatt hours per year. Additionally the conversion of this solid waste would reduce green house gas emissions by 146 million ton per year which would reduce the overall emissions by 1.9% compared to green house gas emission figures for 2006. Further, nationwide implementation would reduce energy consumption to landfill such solid waste by 15 million and reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 7.2 ton billion over a 50-year period. The researchers also note that such a wide scale conversion would be costly in logistics and plant development and that national policy initiatives would be needed to develop large scale implementation. Carbon credit systems that rebate $30-$60 dollars per ton would help municipalities break even and allow anaerobic biodegradation systems to eventually profit.

It must be said that this article is important because it tests real data on this type of conversion and makes no qualms about demonstrating its cost, but currently municipalities have considerable completely unclaimed resources being sucked in to solid waste landfilling and even those that are recycling a great deal of it are still not breaking even and still using a good deal of land to deal with this enduring problem. This type of system would eventually be a win, as municipalities could generate renewable energy seriously reduce waste, landfill land usage and possibly even eventually make a profit on this currently unused and even a serious liability.

Dollard, J. (2010). Hot fix for renewable energy. Pollution Engineering, 42(9), 22-29. Retrieved from GreenFILE database.

Dollard introduces in this article the concept of plasma gasification of municipal solid wastes. In this type of system the solid wastes would be burned in a gasifier that would be capable of reclaiming the byproduct, allowing the fuel (syngas) to be a source of feedstock for bio-ethanol and biodiesel. The article notes that though the technology is not at all new there are very few scale models for research comparison but where those plants exist the potential for such a system is being realized with the development of usable goods including syngas as well as value products such as reusable industrial chemicals and even construction materials. The researcher also notes that as compared to other management solutions for municipal solid waste this system is safer and would also considerably reduce non-biodegradable and biodegradable solid waste from landfills. The only question I had after reading the article is the relative safety of gasses and/or byproducts of the burning process. In traditional gasifier technology the reclamation of most of the materials is near complete when done correctly and that which is emitted is basically vaporized water but the article does not fully explore if this is the case in plasma gasification, as proposed here. Either way it is yet another example of a sustainable energy source produced from a current serious liability to municipalities and the environment.

Ferrey, S. (2010). The Failure of international global warming regulation to promote needed renewable energy. Boston College Environmental Affairs Law Review, 37(1), 67-126. Retrieved from GreenFILE database.

Ferrey's article reviews international standards for global warming reduction and claims that the current regulations and suggestions do not address the need for renewable energies. The work claims that without this aspect of the regulations and suggestions being adopted by the Kyoto protocols the plan will ultimately not answer for this significant need, which could in part be why the U.S. did not sign the Kyoto protocols. Currently the researcher claims the system only offers limitations for fossil fuel consumption but does not offer or mandate significant interests in renewable energy sources and therefore is only a one sided mandate system. This then leaves all the answers to these questions entirely up to the nations involved. These nations are left with the burden then of using less energy with no replacements being offered as acceptable to replace them. The impact of this one sided mandate is according to the researcher then a completely one sided and unusable system that will not likely be effective, especially in nations without significant scientific focus on such technologies and alternatives. Ferrey stresses that technologies for renewable energy exists today and are being perfected by science almost daily and unless the international community demands that they be used to replace fossil fuel energy production on a large scale the international protocols for fossil fuel use reduction will likely fail.

Kaygusuz, K. (2009). The role of hydropower for sustainable energy development. Energy Sources Part B: Economics, Planning & Policy, 4(4), 365-376. doi:10.1080/15567240701756889.

Kayagusuz discusses the role of hydropower, an existing and highly utilized form of renewable power, in the future of renewable energy production. There has been an enduring global debate regarding large damns for the production of renewable energy for a host of reasons. Kaygusuz discusses some of those reasons not the least of which are the social, land and water use issues that are altered significantly when big damns are constructed. The concern for Kaygusuz is that the amount energy used in the world has increased substantially in the last century and will continue to rise, not the least in part to expansion of energy use in developing nations. The author contends that answering many of these questions including how the hydropower industry could mitigate disasters such as the utter loss of water use in certain areas and/or the reduction of livability and lack of energy production. Because hydropower technology can answer many of these issues, with proper planning and implementation it should continue to be a big part of renewable energy production. Kaygusuz stresses that the U.S. And other developed nations with significant current production of hydropower should serve as an example for both the good and bad of hydropower and allow developing nations to reap the benefits and rewards of years of know how regarding hydropower production.

Knudsen, J. (2010). Integration of Environmental Concerns in a Trans-Atlantic Perspective: The Case of Renewable Electricity. Review of Policy Research, 27(2), 127-146. doi:10.1111/j.1541-1338.2009.00434.x.

Knudsen discusses how the U.S. compares to other nations in its assessment of renewable energy production as a fundamental answer to global climate change. The work compares six New England U.S. states in their promotion of renewable energy as a change agent in the reduction of global climate change. The comparison is to European Nordic nations. The findings are that the six U.S. states studied do not causally link renewable energy production with climate change issues and that the European Nordic comparison does. The author sites that the EU top down structure for assessing the causal factors of global climate change and answering it with renewable energy as a direct link to change is more effective in making people and policy reflective of this real connectivity. The article speaks directly to the fact that the U.S. has been relatively fractured in its connection of climate change to renewable energy because of its fundamental states rights structure but also because the U.S. population has been effectively sold renewable energy as an economic and security issue, with the potential for real savings as well as the benefit of being more energy independent from destabilized nations. The environments (climate change) aspect of renewable energy marketing in the U.S. is almost tertiary to these other two aspects. In other words the marketing of renewable energy has focused more on individuals saving money, because American's love to save money (at least in their minds) and because the social marketing comes in the wake of direct U.S. involvement in the middle east oil producing region.

Lindl, T. (2009). Letting Solar Shine: An Argument to Temper the Over-the-Fence Rule. Ecology Law Quarterly, 36(4), 851-892. Retrieved from GreenFILE database.

Lindl reviews a law in California called the over the fence rule where solar energy production is limited in the way it is distributed. The law states that a solar producer cannot provide excess energy to any neighboring properties. This according to Lindl is and investment choking policy that stunt the development of renewable energy and its distribution throughout California. The rule is as Lindl stresses the result of powerful Power Company lobbies who demand protection from real competition in the energy market, supposedly protect consumers from unfair energy practices and promote grid reliability. Lindl contends that these justifications are outmoded and do not in any way justify the rule. The author contends that if the rule was eliminated there would be more non-traditional renewable power investment in California and that this type of rule is fundamentally harmful tot the development of renewable power structures in California. Lindl also notes that the kind of energy power structure that was in place prior to the adoption of this rule is no longer in place and that the system is, largely on consumer demand, seeking out better ways to generate and therefore provide renewable energy to its customers. Collaboration between traditional power companies and traditional suppliers of renewable solar energy has much improved as has the number of households who independently have converted to all or partial solar power generation. As an aspect of the over the fence rule consumers who generate excess power cannot sell it to the power company but instead they can reduce their bill to close to zero. Lindl calls for the immediate change of this rule to allow for the continued collaborative production of more solar arrays, through investment and for consumers to be able to sell power to the power grid.

Martin, M. (2010). The Great Green Grid. E - the Environmental Magazine, 21(4), 22-29. Retrieved from GreenFILE database.

Martin discusses the readiness to launch a smart grid in the U.S. The current U.S. grid according to Martin has not changed for more than 100 years and it boasts a one way transmission that does not account for usage need or any fluctuation in the amount of energy created to feed it. The power supply system, using current grid technology then has to produce a greater amount of energy to meet needs in a continual manner. In other words the current grid system causes the power suppliers to have to make enough power to feed peaks in energy use rather than allowing it to respond to real time demand. A smart grid according the Martin might also make it possible for two way transmission, so consumers who produce excess renewable energy can return it to the grid. Martin also notes that this would be a striking opportunity for renewable like solar and wind to be hooked in to the existing grid, rather than the current system where energy has to be piped in through complicated add on technology. The article though it would seem a bit sunny as it does not fully discuss the potential barriers to smart grid creation the number one being cost, it does clearly explain the potential of such a system where according to Martin consumers would have greater control over individual costs as they would be able to better determine what they are willing to pay by actual rather than historical usage data. It also offers the example on a relatively small scale in Boulder CO, where smart grid technology has been implemented city wide. The example offers consumer information about how they can save on energy costs by choosing to use high energy sucking appliances during off peak hours when the grid might be supplying more power than the system needs and therefore the energy costs less to provide. Martin also stresses that consumer education will be essential to successful roll out of smart grid technology.