Ngo Dinh Diem and his political legacy

Ngo Dinh Diem

Born in the year 1901 to an aristocratic family, Ngo Dinh Diem rose to become the Prime Minister of South Vietnam in the year 1954. This paper looks in detail at the events during the life of Ngo Dinh Diem, his era of governance and the events that took place in the aftermath of his assassination. Catholic missionaries converted his predecessors into Christianity several years back in the 17th century. Much like his pervious family generations, he too was educated in French Catholic schools. Following his successful graduation he was trained as an administrator who worked in conjunction with the French authorities based in Vietnam. At a very young age of twenty-five, he became a provincial governor. This was his foray into a long political career, which marked dramatic incidents both in his personal life and the history of Vietnam.

At a time when communism was rising and regarded to be a threat by many western nations including the United States of America, Ngo Dinh Diem, portrayed him to be a vociferous opponent of communism. He worked for the administration of Emperor Bao Dai until the year 1933. During the Second World War and its aftermath, he continued to oppose the French occupation and also the National Independence Movement that was initiated by the communists. In the year 1945, he turned down an offer to work under the post war government that was briefly installed. While the confrontation lasted involving French troops and independent forces Ngo Dinh Diem spent a number of years in exile, which was quite influential in laying the buildings blocks to his political career. It was during those times that he occupied himself in a massive contact building exercise and eventually managed to gain the much needed support and approval of the United States of America.

Already proving himself anti-communist by not aligning with the Ho Chi Minh camp it was indeed quite easy for Ngo Dinh Diem to toe alongside the 'American' foreign policy. In the wake of the defeat of the French forces in the year 1954, he became Prime Minister of South Vietnam. With the express support of the United States of America he established himself as the supreme ruler of South Vietnam and began what was to be an extensively corrupt rule filled with devious ideologies much regarded as a terrible era of misrule and nepotism. His rule was however short lived as communist guerrillas sponsored by North Vietnam launched a fresh offensive against his regime. The American government was until then a friend of the Ngo Dinh Diem government changed policies and aligned with rebel generals of the armed forces of Vietnam. With such dramatic developments the regime and its power stood shaky and questionable. The end came in the year 1963 when a faction of the rebel armed forces commanded by a few powerful generals overthrew the regime and assassinated Ngo Dinh Diem. (Diem, Ngo Diem)

Chapter-1

The life and times of Ngo Dinh Diem

Ngo Dinh Diem was born in the city of Hue, which was the capital city of the Nguyen dynasty. Born as a Catholic, his was a noble family in Vietnam, which had links with the ruling class for a number of generations. His father was an advisor to the then Emperor who had a tiny role to play under the French colonial rule. His elder brother Dinh Thuc was archbishop of Hue. Ngo Dinh Diem received formal education from French Catholic Schools throughout his life. Among the most significant of them was his stint in the School for Law and Administration in Hanoi. With his successful graduation from this prestigious institution he was swept into politics and worked for the French government. In the year 1929 he was elevated to the post of Provincial Governor. Four years later, in 1933, Emperor Bao Dai appointed him as minister of interior.

This however did not last too long as Ngo Dinh Diem withdrew from the government and opposed the French presence in Vietnam in sync with the opinion of many Vietnamese nationalists who were growingly concerned of the obnoxious French presence. During the Second World War period from 1940 to 1945, Vietnam was occupied by Japan. With the end of the Second World War, the communist backed Viet Minh ousted the Japanese in August 1945 and seized control of Vietnam. The Viet Minh government installed itself in Vietnam with Ho Chi Minh as its leader. The new government offered Ngo Dinh Diem a place in its fold but the offer was promptly refused as Diem viewed the communist government more of a threat that was a hindrance to his Christian values and morals and to his vision of an independent Vietnam. In the year 1950, he left Vietnam on a self-imposed exile and found refuge in the United States of America. During his stay in the United States, he came to be noted by the administration of President Dwight Eisenhower.

Eisenhower's administration was increasingly concerned of a communist takeover of South East Asia. In Ngo Dinh Diem, the administration saw a person who was more or less a Vietnamese Nationalist capable of countering the growing threat of communism. This was despite the fact that Ngo Dinh Diem remained a largely unknown figure in Vietnam. During the period when Diem was living in exile, the Viet Minh government was engaged in a confrontation with the French forces that sought to reclaim their lost colonies. After years of battle, the French conceded defeat-paving way for what was thought to be total independence of Vietnam. This however was not to happen. The Geneva Accord was the agreement that halted the war between the French and the Viet Minh. According to the provisions of the Geneva Accord, the Viet Minh was given control of only the northern part of the country. The implementation of the accord saw a temporary split in the geography of Vietnam making it into two different provinces; the northern sector and the southern sector. While the Viet Minh was given control of the northern sector, Emperor Bao Dai who was overtly supported by the United States government controlled the southern sector. Ngo Dinh Diem was made Prime Minister of South Vietnam under Emperor Bao Dai backed by the United States government. (Ngo Dinh Diem - Encarta)

It is widely believed and accepted that Ngo Dinh Diem's Prime Ministership was the game plan of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). America had long wanted a pro-U.S. government in the hemisphere and had for years tried overtly and covertly to resist any communist presence and establishment. Ngo Dinh Diem arrived in Vietnam with no political backing except the support of the United States and its intelligence apparatus the CIA. Almost all covert action personnel of the Central Intelligence Agency based in Vietnam backed Ngo Dinh Diem. Diem's takeover as Prime Minister was viewed with doubt by the then American President Dwight Eisenhower who went to the extent of questioning Diem's viability. President Eisenhower also accepted the fact that Diem was largely unknown and was a speck in comparison to Ho Chi Minh and his government, which claimed support of 80% of all Vietnamese people. The Geneva Conference of 1954-1955 imposed a ceasefire, which was highly beneficial to the CIA. The agency used the days of the ceasefire to conduct a series of propaganda and covert operations in North Vietnam.

In order to instill a sense of fear and insecurity among the Catholic population of North Vietnam, the agency embarked on a program of misinformation with regards to the threat of Nuclear weapons. This caused the Catholic population in North Vietnam to migrate down south. Having shifted base to South Vietnam, the Catholic Population was trained by the U.S. military and the CIA as policing force loyal to Ngo Dinh Diem. Catholic Vietnamese formed not more than 10% of South Vietnam's total population. However, under the rule of Ngo Dinh Diem, the group enjoyed all rights and privileges. In the aftermath of a political vacuum, which the United States saw as a fitting opportunity to place Diem in power, the CIA launched a series of covert operations and gained control over Saigon.

In due course, the Agency released a Special National Intelligence Estimate (SNIE), which deliberately omitted its role in supporting the Diem government. The Special National Intelligence Estimate (SNIE) declared that Ngo Dinh Diem was alone responsible for his success. Added to a barrage of lies and half truths, the CIA also conducted a worldwide disinformation program which portrayed Ngo Dinh Diem as a liberator of South Vietnam who fought the menace of communism guaranteeing a social stand against the aggressive North Vietnamese factions that were considered a rouge regime. From 1955 to 1960 Ngo Dinh Diem tried to assert his authority over rural South Vietnam. His forces killed and imprisoned people by the tens of thousands. This is regarded to be the beginning of the end for Ngo Dinh Diem and his oppressive regime. (Colby's Vietnam: History Misrepresented)

With time came anger from various quarters and communities. The United States of America supported the actions of the government of Ngo Dinh Diem in an effort to quell any communist backed movement from seizing power in the volatile region. Due to the unconditional support rendered by the United States of America, Diem and his regime had little or no threats to fear from. A rule of oppression and authoritarianism followed often creating widespread anger and disgust among common people. Riots and protests were the order of the day and martial law was imposed from time to time. With support from the United States administration, Ngo Dinh Diem rejected the Geneva Accord and its requirement to conduct elections in 1956 that could result in the unification of the country. Using a referendum in the year 1955, Ngo Dinh Diem succeeded in abolishing the monarchy and declared himself President of South Vietnam. Throughout his misadventures an unfriendly people policies exercised by his regime, Ngo Diem maintained close and cordial ties with the United States administration, which saw change of guard from President Eisenhower to President John F. Kennedy.

Despite several misadventures Diem continued to source support and aid from the United States of America. He maintained close communication between his regime and the members of the United States administration. During his tenure in office he continuously wrote to President Dwight Eisenhower and President John F. Kennedy lamenting on his efforts to maintain peace and a program of development. In his letter to President Kennedy dated December 7, 1961, Diem writes, "Like the United States, The Republic of Vietnam has always been devoted to the preservation of peace. My people know only too well the sorrows of war. We have honored the 1954 Geneva Agreements even though they resulted in the partition of our country and the enslavement of more than half of our people by Communist tyranny. We have never considered the reunification of our nation by force. On the contrary, we have publicly pledged that we will not violate the demarcation line and the demilitarized zone set up by the Agreements. We have always been prepared and have on many occasions stated our willingness to reunify Vietnam on the basis of democratic and truly free elections." (Letter to President John F. Kennedy) This can best be regarded as blatant lies despite gross violations of the Geneva Peace Accord and an utter disregard for human rights.

Citing communist threat and oppression, he attempted to forge a successful partnership with the United States of America. In his letter to President Kennedy he also highlights the growing Communist aggression against his country and his people. He writes, "Like the United States, The Republic of Vietnam has always been devoted to the preservation of peace. My people know only too well the sorrows of war. We have honored the 1954 Geneva Agreements even though they resulted in the partition of our country and the enslavement of more than half of our people by Communist tyranny. We have never considered the reunification of our nation by force. On the contrary, we have publicly pledged that we will not violate the demarcation line and the demilitarized zone set up by the Agreements. We have always been prepared and have on many occasions stated our willingness to reunify Vietnam on the basis of democratic and truly free elections. (Letter to President John F. Kennedy)

The record of the Communist authorities in the northern part of the country is quite otherwise. They not only consented to the division of Vietnam, but also were eager for it. They pledged themselves to observe the Geneva Agreements and during the seven years since have never ceased to violate them. They call for free elections but are ignorant of the very meaning of the words. They talk of "peaceful reunification" and wage war against us." (Letter to President John F. Kennedy) His words can best be regarded, as a barrage of lies aimed at painting a picture quite different from the true aims and ambitions of his corrupt regime. Citing communism as a threat, Diem attempted so forge a successful relationship with the United States. (Letter to President John F. Kennedy)

Chapter-2

The Corrupt and Authoritarian Regime

The regime of Ngo Dinh Diem turned out to be one that was filled with corruption, fueled by hate, nepotism and near dictatorship. His rule marked imprisonment and execution of hundreds of Buddhists. No sooner had he come to power that he filled key government positions with his family members. Ngo Diem believed in a dictatorial rule combined with brute force and tyranny. Added to corruption, the regime also disregarded land reform policies. After Diem became head of state, America had established a massive presence in the hemisphere. During March 1955, United States advisors began training South Vietnamese troops. Later that year, South Vietnam refused to participate in the all-Vietnam elections called for by the Geneva Accord. Not only did Diem reject the Geneva peace accord, he also labeled it as detrimental to the progress of Vietnam. Meanwhile, in the background, the United States signaled support to this outrageous regime in the hope of preventing a communist hegemony in the region.

On 23rd October 1955, Prime Minister Ngo Dinh Diem ousts Emperor Bao Dai from power in a United States backed referendum, which was grossly rigged. Prime Minister Diem is advised on consolidation of power by U.S. Air force Col. Edward G. Lansdale. In truth, Col. Lansdale worked for the Central Intelligence Agency. Three days later, on 26th October 1955, South Vietnam was declared Republic of Vietnam with Ngo Dinh Diem, as it's first President. More than a hundred countries recognize it across the world. Back in the United States, President Eisenhower expressed his fullest support for the Diem government inclusive of financial and military aid. In the newly formed republic, President Diem appointed family and friends in high government offices, most significant of them being an appointment of his brother Ngo Dinh Nhu as his Chief Advisor. His style of governance and leadership was autocratic and fear inspiring rather than participative and free.

This caused a great deal of trouble for him and the regime alike since support from the population eroded with time. The Americans on their part did their best to popularize him using American style political rallies and countryside tours. His famous quote "Follow me if I advance! Kill me if I retreat! Revenge me if I die!" was far from his ideological beliefs and practices. One of his first acts as President was to reverse the land reform policies. (The Two Nations 1954-1963) & (Ngo Dinh Diem - Encarta: An Encyclopedia Article) He embarked on an audacious and widely despised plan of returning lands to wealthy landlords those lands that were granted to peasants and farmers by the Viet Minh government. This caused relocation of the peasants and rural villagers into far off areas. Violating the Geneva Accord yet another time, Ngo Dinh Diem sought help from the United States in creating the Army of the Republic of Vietnam popularly known as the AVRN. The regime forced young males from villages into joining the AVRN. The population despised all these measures and there was widespread opposition though it had not yet been vented out in the open. This fostered the formation of the National Liberation Front (NLF) whose primary aim remained the ouster of President Ngo Dinh Diem and the reunification of Vietnam. Being Catholic, Diem systematically denied government positions to non-Catholics and people belonging to other communities. (The Two Nations 1954-1963) & (Ngo Dinh Diem - Encarta: An Encyclopedia Article)

This sparked an outrage among a majority of the South Vietnamese population who were Buddhists. With the passage of time, the anger of the Buddhist community was displayed by way of severe protests and rioting that led to a worsening security situation within the newly formed republic. Ngo Dinh Nhu, a brother of the President controlled the much-dreaded secret police often using fear as an instrument to suppress public opinion and sentiment. The secret police, in truth, were not any more than a bunch of thugs who controlled illicit activities such as drug trafficking, gun running, prostitution and so on. Ngo Dinh Nhu personally profited from illegal activities, which were coordinated and managed by the very secret police whose responsibility it was to protect the interests of the nation. Ngo Dinh Can, yet another brother of Diem controlled all commercial and government related activities in Central Vietnam making administration more of a family business. Ngo Dinh Thuc, another of the brothers in power was the archbishop of Saigon. (The Two Nations 1954-1963) & (Ngo Dinh Diem - Encarta: An Encyclopedia Article)

In the year 1955, a year after assuming power as Prime Minister, Ngo Dinh Diem ordered several thousands of Vietnamese civilians into concentration camps. This was a re-enactment of the Second World War Nazi style regime principle. In the year 1959, he passed the controversial law 10/59 which allowed the use of political prison camps and called for the arrest and detention of all those people who were considered to be threats to the state. Furthermore, the law also called for replacement of all civilian courts by military courts. It was proclaimed that any crime against the state was punishable by death. A number of stupid codifications were made for instance; breaking of farm equipment was regarded to be an act of treason and hence attracted the death penalty. The regime and order of President Ngo Dinh Diem was one based on oppression, discrimination and authoritarianism. In being so, Diem alienated himself from the general public earning their distrust and anger in the process. During his rule he gained very little political or social recognition. On the contrary, he earned the wrath of his people and continued to lose support and stability across his country over time. (Mid Term Essay 5)

The increasingly corrupt regime harbored terrorists, drug traffickers and gunrunners and profited from the hoard of illicit trade that it allowed to flourish within the country. Despite its overwhelming record of human rights violation and continued oppression of its people, the United States of America continued to extend its unconditional support to the regime. With the support and aid of the United States, Ngo Dinh Diem and his associates had little to fear or worry about. The Americans on their part conveniently ignored the wrong doings of the Diem government and continued to paint a contrary picture of the administration in South Vietnam. Even as Diem and his people continued their oppressive rule, the United States was cooperative in extending support to what was more of a dictatorial regime than a people friendly government. The only aim of the South Vietnamese government was to profit from the governance of the country irrespective of the sorry state of affairs of its people.

America on its part was concerned only of the possibility of a communist uprising in the hemisphere and was committed to halting such an event under any circumstance. It therefore showed little or no interest in the intricacies of the Diem government and its style of functioning. President Eisenhower praised Ngo Dinh Diem and regarded him to be the champion of peace and liberator of Vietnam from the evil forces of communism. All the United States did was to play second fiddle to the government of Ngo Dinh Diem often endorsing its controversial policies and procedure. (The Pentagon Papers: Volume1, Chapter 5, Section 3)

The regime became more and more preoccupied with matters of security and consolidation of its own power rather than having to address more pressing issues that troubled its people. Its promulgation of controversial policies worried the people at large. In the year 1956, Ngo Dinh Diem abolished elections for municipal councils. While the regime was busy strengthening its base, opposition grew in large numbers. In keeping with the American policy of anti-communism, the government of South Vietnam spent a great deal of time and resources engaged in a crusade against communism, neglecting its people. Members of the regime were more interested in personal gains rather than overall social and political development. With the assistance of his brother Ngo Dinh Can, Diem launched the Anti-Communist Denunciation Campaign in Quang Tn in the year 1955. What followed was a series of raids and bloody tortures against a group of people believed to be part of the Dai Viet. The Dai Viet was believed to be an anti-government organization involved in 'offensive propaganda and massive disinformation programs.' It was also believed that the Dai Viet was instrumental in running an anti-government radio station. Subsequent to the raids, a great deal of Dai Viet sympathizers were exiled, killed and held as prisoners in concentration camps. (The Pentagon Papers: Volume1, Chapter 5, Section 3)

The rule of Ngo Dinh Diem was regarded as Fascism during the Cold War. A record for gross violation of human rights and utter disregard for humanity labeled the regime to be a tactical totalitarian government, which was bent upon intensifying its supremacy and influence. Meanwhile the Buddhist crisis in the country took a turn for the worse. Many Buddhist priests were imprisoned of sent into exile. Months of violent protests and rioting followed with senior Buddhist clerics immolating themselves in public. Vietnam was predominantly a Buddhist nation and Ngo Dinh Diem's favoritism towards Catholics angered the Buddhist community who felt sidelined in a nation that belonged to them. The Buddhist crisis escalated to become a religious outburst. Although America remained silent on the issue and continued to extend support and provide aid, many officials in the administration grew increasingly concerned about the growing atrocities committed by the Diem government. An unnamed U.S. State Department official said "The thing that bothers me about this Government is that the only people who are for it are Americans." (Vietnam - History, documents and opinion)

Although it was not openly voiced, it became progressively clearer that the United States government was emerging to be increasingly concerned about the Diem government and its doings. Meanwhile, the Buddhist community continued to demand for its rights and privileges by way of protests and demonstrations. One such incident saw the demand by Buddhists to fly their flag in the city of Hue on the birthday of Buddha. The Diem government quoted an old regulation and proclaimed that only government flags were allowed to fly in public. Irate by the declaration, which was regarded to be biased and discriminatory, thousands of Buddhists took to the streets. The government on its part sought to break the demonstration and resorted to stringent means. The police was ordered to fire into the demonstrating crowd and as a result nine people were killed. This action of the government was considered totally irresponsible especially in the light of the protest being peaceful. To add insult to the injury, the government refused to accept responsibility for the incident and in its newspapers published the news running the headline "Nine killed at the hands of the Vietcong." A peace delegation of Buddhist monks visited President Ngo Dinh Diem. There were publicly abused and called fools since they asked for religious freedom despite it having been provided by the constitution.

The already strong anti-government sentiment grew stronger and the general attitude of the government became increasingly clear to see. In the background, the Americans, who until now had endorsed every single decision of the Diem government irrespective of its legitimacy, began changing tones and demanded that the government admit its mistake in handling the Buddhist incident and promptly issue an apology. The Diem government on the other hand, found it increasingly difficult to do as the Americans dictated and refused to apologize. By far, this is regarded as the beginning of a bitter string of differences between the American administration and the government of Ngo Dinh Diem. In truth, America had only been looking forward to an excuse to align against South Vietnam and its regime. It had over some time now, grown increasingly intolerant of the Diem government and its policies. Support for the government in South Vietnam continued to deteriorate. (Vietnam - History, documents and opinion)

During one of his countrywide travels, a senior government official whom he quizzed about policy matters and public opinion accompanied Diem. On one such occasion when Diem asked about the opinion of the people, the official replied, "Well, Mr. President, the people are very unhappy." On hearing this, the President flew into an uncontrollable rage and remarked, "It is all Communist propaganda." (Vietnam - History, documents and opinion) What he failed to realize was that it was his very own doings that angered his people and eroded their support for him. Senior government officials maintained that had the President merely interacted with his people promising to look into their misgivings and worries, a great deal of trouble could have been avoided. Contrarily, Diem engaged in a dictatorial rule that alienated himself from his very own people adding to suspicion, discontent, distrust and eventually extreme hatred.

Ngo Dinh Diem did not view himself as a type of leader the Americans wanted him to be. He regarded himself to be a representative of God to the people and believed that it was the duty of his people to honor and respect him. Strange as it may seem, it was true to the effect that he commanded enormous respected among all sections of the society primarily because of the fear he instilled in the minds of the people. It is widely believed that the President was highly influenced by his family and often acted as per the whims and fancies of his kith and kin. There is little doubt that Diem considered Buddhism as a 'not-so-serious' religion and placed his trust almost exclusively in Roman Catholics, Catholics from the central region in particular. In one instance, he told a high ranking officer, forgetting that he was Buddhist "Put your Catholic officers in sensitive places. They can be trusted." (Vietnam - History, documents and opinion) During his rule, he ensured that Catholics held key positions only. All important branches of the government such as the ministry of the inferior, the secret police, the armed forces and so on were manned by Catholics favoured by the President. The Buddhist protests which were limited to Hue initially, soon spread to other parts of the country including the central coastal region and Saigon. Almost simultaneously, in many cities as if well coordinated and organized, protests erupted by the day. (Vietnam - History, documents and opinion)

Government forces that used gas grenades broke up a student demonstration in Hue. Sixty-seven people were admitted into medical care following blister-gas burns. As the protests grew more in number and magnitude, a large part of the Buddhist clergy joined hands with the protesters. They began to display an increased sense of organized stability and coordination. The government warned the Buddhist priests from assembling in Saigon. This however proved no deterrence at all as a large group of priests assembled in front of the National Assembly and began a hunger strike. The protests had taken a fresh turn with the rank and file of the Buddhist clergy teaming with the local population. A wave of protests followed with the government issuing controversial statements. The Women's Solidarity Movement led by Mrs. Ngo Dinh Nhu issued a horrific statement that highlighted that communists infiltrated Buddhists. Embassy officials were shocked and appalled by the statement, which they regarded to be totally blasphemous. Said one foreign official "If that statement is policy, it's a disaster; otherwise it's simply an aberration." (Vietnam - History, documents and opinion) State department officials were quick to react to this abhorrence and demanded Mrs. Nhu's apology failing which the United States would no longer remain allies of the Diem government. Lady Nhu later on remarked that the entire episode was not any more than an attempt by the U.S. State Department to blackmail her into silence. (Vietnam - History, documents and opinion)

Merely three days after Nhu's statement, an elderly Buddhist priest, Thich Quang Duc, immolated himself on a busy road assuming the cross-legged Buddha posture. He died without moving or even uttering a single word. Thich Quang Duc died a hero who was hailed for upholding the cause of Buddhism in an oppressive regime, which ruled with brute force, and appalling despotism. An American citizen remarked "When pictures of Quang Due burning himself to death went around the world, if this [Roman Catholic] Government was not discriminating against Buddhists it might just as well have been." (Vietnam - History, documents and opinion)

The United States promptly intervened in the snowballing issue and pressurized both sides to sign a five point joint settlement. The settlement was made although neither side agreed to its contents. Although the settlement favored the Buddhists at large, it did not hold the government of Ngo Dinh Diem responsible for the Hue incident and other similar tragedies. Mrs. Ngo Dinh Nhu was infuriated when she heard of Die m's imminent signing of the settlement plan. She is reported to have called Diem a coward at whom President Diem retorted back "You do not understand this affair. It has international implications. We must settle it." (Vietnam - History, documents and opinion) Almost simultaneously, in Xa Loi pagoda, a young Buddhist priest remarked "If I tell some of the other Buddhists what has been signed they will be very angry." (Vietnam - History, documents and opinion) This indicates the huge difference of opinion that persisted with reference to the settlement plan mediated by the United States.

In the aftermath of the signing however, conflicting reports of the government's intention to carry out the accord began to emerge. Ngo Dinh Nhu is believed to have issued a surreptitious communication to his Republican Youth Wing, the Cong Hoa, calling for Buddhist rebels and urging the Diem government not to accept the joint settlement plan. Diplomats and other reliable sources maintained that the government planned an impudent operation to seize and detain Buddhist leaders after a period of inactivity, which would ensure slackened attention. Almost immediately, Vice-President Nguyen Ngoc Tho, a Buddhist, declared that elaborately conducted investigations revealed the role of the Vietcong in the killings, which took place in the city of Hue. This sparked another wave of protests by the Buddhist community. The government responded with a series of raids against Buddhist priests and strongholds in a desperate attempt to weaken the opposition. The final blow came with the raid on Xa Loi pagoda. The raid was a failure owing to a massive media presence based on a tip off. By then it was certain that the government was on the verge of collapse. People heaved a sigh that it was only a matter of weeks or perhaps even days before the imminent disintegration. Diem's days had been numbered. (Vietnam - History, documents and opinion)

Chapter-3

Downfall, Assassination and the aftermath

Increased public anti-government sentiment and weakening cooperation from within contributed to a shaky position that affected the government of Ngo Dinh Diem with the force of an avalanche. Plots and conspiracies began to be hatched to overthrow the weakened Diem regime and his family members. By now, the United States of America, who was a friend and protector of the Ngo Dinh Diem, had taken a complete shift in position with regards to its support to the regime. It turned out to be the regime's principal opponent vehemently opposing the Diem government's oppressive and unfriendly social and military policies. The Americans halted all forms of aid to the South Vietnamese government and de-recognized it in total.

While the United States continued to adopt and maintain its newfound policy against the government of South Vietnam, the country itself was plagued by numerous protests and violent demonstrations. It was apparent that the Buddhist community had lost its patience and was now taking on the regime in full force and might. It seems that the time was right for staging a coup attempt against the oppressive President and his family of power mongers. At the time of the chaotic scenes that South Vietnam witnessed, the military had in it a young and ambitious brigadier general by the name of Ton That Dinh. Having risen to the top echelons of the executive branch of the armed forces at a considerably young age of 38, Ton That Dinh owed much of his success to the President's family who placed its unswerving trust in him. (Vietnam - History, documents and opinion)

Brigadier General Ton That Dinh was given command of North Saigon in the hope of countering any threat that might emanate from that direction. Command of South Saigon was in the hands of General Huynh Van Cao, another senior member of the armed forces whom the Diem family had complete confidence in. It was not long before other generals of the armed forces successfully convinced General Huynh Van Cao and Brigadier General Ton That Dinh to join hands with them in a coup attempt against President Ngo Dinh Diem and his family. Thus began an elaborate and well-concealed plot to assassinate the President and his immediate family that had for long clung to power. The United States of America lent its fullest support to the rebel generals and provided logistical and intelligence information in the hope of getting rid of what was once its brainchild against the crusade against communism. Meanwhile, the Buddhist crisis had by now erupted into a full-blown religious conflict.

Among the several generals who were instrumental in the planning of a coup were Duong Van Minh, popularly known as Big Minh, who held an exemplary record as a combat leader but remained sidelined due to Ngo Dinh Nhu's jealousies, the second of the lot being Tran Van Don, a graduate of St. Cyr, France and finally Le Van Kim, who although having remained insignificant proved to be an astute military man with unmatched cunning and a knack for planning. These people who felt that the government was heading the nation into a stage of irreversible crisis designed the coup. With time, a number of key officials were brought into the plan. The conniving officers treaded cautiously and gained the consent of Gen. Nguyen Kanh of the II Corps, and Gen. Do Cao Tri of the I Corps. (Vietnam - History, documents and opinion)

Among their primary problems were a failsafe plan that needed to be arrived upon and the requirement of more troops. What concerned them the most was the method in which troops would be directed into Saigon. Based on past experience and sheer military logic, the Diem family had prepared for such an eventuality to guard against such threats, which may arise from within the military infrastructure. A great deal of prominence was placed upon the loyalty among highly positioned officers particularly of those in and around Saigon. This was primarily based on two reasons; firstly there stood every possible chance that a disloyal commander could with the assistance of his troops storm the Presidential palace and take command and secondly should such an eventuality ever take place, then the President could rely upon his loyal commanders to protect himself and his family. (Vietnam - History, documents and opinion)

The fate of President Ngo Dinh Diem and his regime was sealed as early as the year 1961. John F. Kennedy took over as President of the United States and viewed Diem and his government to be an increasing source of embarrassment to the United States of America. With the Diem regime plunged neck deep into crisis and weak like never before, the American government envisaged a possible threat by the North Vietnamese communist factions that could have easily established presence in the region. The administration was left with the choice of sponsoring a rebellion to overthrow the Diem government or face an imminent aggression of South Vietnam by communist forces. The Kennedy administration found the former option to be a choice and thus began working on its modalities.

In the year 1963, weeks before the Coup attempt, the White house was engaged in an elaborate plan which involved topmost officials such as the Attorney General, the National Security Advisor, the Chief of White House Staff and the President himself. Taped conversations confirm beyond doubt that top U.S. officials sought the coup attempt against President Diem without having considered the physical consequences that might fall upon him. The tape consisting parts of a top-secret meeting that took place on October 29th, 1963, between President Kennedy and his top brass clearly illustrates the role of the United States and proves beyond doubt that the event took place with the knowledge and support of the United States government. Attorney General and the President's brother is quoted saying "I mean, it's different from a coup in the Iraq or South American country; we are so intimately involved in this."

Between the years 1961 and 1963, the Kennedy administration stepped up military and financial aid to the South Vietnamese government. The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) was ordered by the administration to conduct an on the spot analysis during the spring of 1963. The agency in turn was influenced by the military and thus downplayed the politically weakening situation of President Ngo Dinh Diem. President Kennedy on the other hand felt reassured by the findings of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) quite oblivious to the happenings in Saigon. The White House was jolted by the series of events that led to the Buddhist crisis and the firing by the AVRN troops into the Buddhist crowd. Almost overnight, as if having obtained a reason, the Kennedy administration changed tones and opposed the violent measures that had been put in place by the Diem regime. The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) reworked its previous assessment of the situation in Saigon and added a few more lines suggesting that major changes were underway in South Vietnam and that the government there was on the verge of impending collapse.

A worsening security situation prompted President Ngo Dinh Diem to impose martial law in August 1963. Within days of imposition of martial law and a series of raids on Buddhist strongholds, South Vietnamese commanders approached members of the American administration to determine America's response to a coup against President Diem. The United States was indeed more than happy to have been able to be a part of the rapidly pacing developments in Saigon. Briefing documents indicate that President Kennedy was directly involved in planning and assessment of the coup. Meanwhile on August 29th 1963, Ambassador Henry Cabot Lodge Jr., American Ambassador to Vietnam issued a press statement which was thus "We are now launched on a course from which there is no respectable turning back: the overthrow of the Diem government... there is no turning back because there is no possibility, in my view, that the war can be won under a Diem administration." (VN Wars: Fall of Ngo Dinh Diem) Almost subsequently Saigon Ambassador Frederick E. Nolting, Jr. remarked, "By early l963, Washington was in a mood of euphoria about Vietnam." This indicated that the plan was by no means new founded. Several unsuccessful coup attempts had been launched by South Vietnamese military officials in 1960 and 1962. The United States has since then regarded the possibility of ousting the Ngo Dinh Diem regime. (VN Wars: Fall of Ngo Dinh Diem)

In September 1960, United States Ambassador in Saigon Elbridge Durbrow had cabled Washington that "If Diem's position in-country continues deteriorate as result failure adopt proper political, psychological, economic and security measures, it may become necessary for U.S. Government to begin consideration alternative courses of action and leaders in order achieve our objective." During the same year, Ambassador Durbrow had observed that the many pitfalls of the Diem regime were "basically due to [the] machinations of Diem's brother [Ngo Dinh] Nhu and his henchmen." By August 1962, Joseph Mendenhall, political counselor to Ambassador Elbridge Durbrow left for Washington. Upon meeting with senior members of the Kennedy administration, it was his opinion that "We cannot win the war with the Diem-Nhu methods, and we cannot change those methods no matter how much pressure we put on them. Recommendation: get rid of Diem, Mr. And Mrs. Nhu and the rest of the Ngo family." Concerned about the growing problematic situation in Vietnam, a good number of Ambassadors and CIA station chiefs had cautioned the Diem administration but to no tangible result. By 1963, the United States felt that President Diem became more 'resistant' towards advice from the United States.

On 5th April 1963, U.S. Ambassador Frederick Nolting met with President Diem. He observed President Diem to have been "courteous but immovable" in his resistance of United States proposals and Ambassador Nolting's personal advice. Perturbed and despaired, Ambassador Nolting conveyed a personal message from President Kennedy that Saigon's continued disregard for U.S. policy matters and advice would in fact result in "a downward spiral of Vietnam-American confidence" and a "curtailment of U.S. aid" and "a possible change in the policy of the U.S. Government towards Vietnam." With this started off the pro-coup sentiment in Saigon and Washington alike. On 23rd May 1963, Ambassador Nolting endorsed a contingency plan for the role of the United States in the event of a change of government in Vietnam. It was one of his last duties as Ambassador before moving on for a holiday in the Aegean Sea and then heading back to Washington on home leave. On 11th June 1963, the United States Department of States cabled the Embassy in Saigon: "If Diem does not take prompt and effective steps to reestablish Buddhist confidence in him we will have to reexamine our entire relationship with his regime." On 21st June 1963, the State Bureau of Intelligence and Research published a paper which was of the opinion that even though a coup attempt would pose real dangers that may impede war efforts, there would still be a possibility of sufficient alternative leadership in Vietnam which "given the opportunity and continued support from the United States, could provide reasonably effective leadership for the government and the war effort." Meanwhile President Kennedy replaced Ambassador Nolting with Henry Cabot Lodge as the new American Ambassador to Saigon. (President Ngo Dinh Diem's fate: CIA-CSI report 1963-1965), (JFK and the Diem Coup) & (allrefer Reference - Vietnam - The Fall of Ngo Dinh Diem)