Does a Person\'s Gender Affect Their Views on Cloning?

¶ … Cloning has been a hot issue in the news media in recent years. Many feel that it is a good idea and that there could be many benefits to mankind. However, there are those who feel that the issue is beyond our human capabilities and that we are playing with fire. There have been many surveys conducted on public opinion concerning the issue. Some of the studies have been formal, conducted by the research community, and others are informal, conducted by parties such as the news media. Many of these studies failed to separate answers according to gender, age and other demographic issues. Not knowing the demographics of the sample population and taking into account the number of members in each demographic group could essentially add sample bias to the answers.

It is a commonly accepted idea in the academic community that there are significant differences in opinions expressed by males as opposed to females. This is known as gender bias. Research must take into account gender bias in its design. This research will focus on the issue of cloning and attempt to determine if gender bias, particularly a difference in acceptance of the practice, does indeed occur in relationship to the topic.

The information obtained in this research will help to understand and perhaps-shed new light on general opinion polls conducted on the subject. It may also cause us to reexamine polls already conducted to determine if the results can be applied to the general population or if a certain degree of gender bias does exist. If gender bias is found to exist on the subject, then future study designs and opinion polls will have to take this into account. The results are expected to show that a certain degree of gender bias does exist in the acceptance of cloning.

The Cloning Issue: His View, Her View

Introduction

Gender bias refers to the differences in opinion that are a result of gender. It is generally accepted that women and men think differently and that some of these differences have their root in biology, others have their basis in environment and social upbringing. However, regardless of the source of the differences, their existence is not in question. Science is generally accepted to be a "male" oriented subject. That is not to say that there are many notable and accomplished women scientists. However, as a generalization, science is usually considered to be a traditionally male subject area.

Cloning has been a hot topic in the news media recently. Supporters hail it as one of the greatest scientific breakthroughs of the twentieth century. They hail the advances and speculate about the medical miracles that could come from cloning, stem cell research, genetically modified foods and all of the other topics associated with this new technology. However, there are those who cast a more skeptical eye on the cloning issue. They feel that we simply do not know enough about it to attempt to re-create life. They compare cloning to a child playing with matches. This research will explore the issues of gender differences and their effect on one's opinions regarding the acceptance or rejection of the practice of cloning.

Statement of Problem

It is not the intention of this research to decide which side of the issue is right or wrong. However, there have been hundreds of studies published on the topic of the ethics of cloning and the research itself will be the focus of the proposed study. There have been many generalizations made in the popular media and in academic journals as well that simply state something such as, "A recent poll found that 85% of the population states that they are not in favor of cloning." However, one must view this very statement with skepticism, as it does not account for demographic differences in the sample population. It may very well be the situation that 85% of the sample population comprised of a certain demographic group and that the result simply reflects a high percentage of that group.

The purpose of this study is to make certain that good data and research techniques dominate generalizations stated by the media and those responsible for public policy. To design a public opinion poll that does not attempt to identify all of the possible biases that could have an effect on the results is simply poor science. This study comes from a responsibility to determine if public opinion polls, which are readily accepted and reported by the mass media, contain gender biases that could effect the results. This is especially important as policy makers are often effected by public opinion and take this into consideration. Media must be certain that the information they give is accurate, as it will ultimately have an effect on the general public and its feelings and ultimately on the policies that arise concerning cloning.

Rationale

Many issues in our society are gender related. This is an unavoidable fact. For instance, men cannot get pregnant, no matter how hard they try, it is impossible. Therefore how can they be involved in decisions regarding abortion, invitro fertilization, and other reproductive issues? Yet men claim to have a stake in it as it involves the transfer of their genetic material and the creation of a life that is part of them as well. This is key issue surrounding the debate that is the heart of the gender issue involved in this category of research.

The basic argument is that reproduction is generally the realm of the female of the human species. Until recently, it was a given fact, that she could not do it alone and that a contribution from the male of the species was necessary for procreation. Although, in general the female is the one who carries the child, and is typically responsible for the nurturing of the child once it is born. Females are generally responsible for the reproduction of the human species.

Cloning is a reproductive issue and it would be reasonable that differences in the acceptance or rejection of the practice would exist between the genders. These issues must be taken into account in the design of any valid opinion study relating to the issue. This is the primary focus of the proposed research study. The results of the study are expected to reveal a statistically significant difference in the opinions of males and females regarding the cloning issue.

Hypothesis and Variables

This research will highlight an overlooked confounding variable in much publicly cited opinion polls on cloning. The purpose of this research is not to conclusively examine public opinion, as it does not account for other confounding variables, which need similar study to determine their possible effects on public opinion. The purpose of this research will be to determine if gender bias exists in opinions regarding cloning issues. It will examine several aspects of the cloning issue and be divided into four distinct sections. The focus of the research will be on the existence or non-existence of gender bias on opinions concerning the cloning issue.

The independent variable will be opinions expressed regarding the cloning issue. In this research design the dependent variable will be whether the subject taking the survey is male or female. Both dependent variable groups will be matched according to certain other demographic factors, as these may effect the results. The other variables for which subjects are to be matched are expected to effect the results as well. Therefore they must be statistically eliminated as a potential source of sample bias. Demographic matching will help to eliminate as many other confounding demographic factors as possible. This will help to isolate the dependent variables as much as possible. Both demographic groups (males and females) will be administered the same research instrument in the form of a survey.

The survey will be divided into categories, based on a preliminary literature review. A previous study found a difference of opinion on cloning dependent upon whether the object of the cloning was an animal (livestock) or a human. The previous study did not account for gender differences. This research will use the same criteria for evaluation. The survey will be divided into four sections, animal cloning for human use, genetically modified plant foods, human cloning for the treatment of human disease, and human cloning for non-health related reasons.

The research will support the following four hypotheses:

H1: A statistically significant difference will be found between males and females regarding their acceptance or rejection of practices animal cloning for human use.

H10: The null hypothesis will state that no statistically significant difference will be found between males and females regarding their acceptance or rejection of practices involving animal cloning for human use.

H2: A statistically significant difference will be found between males and females regarding their acceptance or rejection of practices involving genetically modified foods.

H20: The null hypothesis will state that no statistically significant difference will be found between males and females regarding their acceptance or rejection of practices involving genetically modified foods.

H3: A statistically significant difference will be found between males and females regarding their acceptance or rejection of practices involving human cloning for the treatment of human disease

H30: The null hypothesis will state that no statistically significant difference will be found between males and females regarding their acceptance or rejection of practices involving human cloning for the treatment of human disease.

H4: A statistically significant difference will be found between males and females regarding their acceptance or rejection of practices involving human cloning for non-health related reasons.

H40: The null hypothesis will state that no statistically significant difference will be found between males and females regarding their acceptance or rejection of practices involving human cloning for non-health related reasons.

The four hypotheses being tested will involve the relationship between the two dependent variables on four separate subject matters involving cloning.

The topic of cloning was found to be too general as far as public opinion was concerned. In the literature review public opinion was found to differ according to final purpose of the cloned species. In addition, cloning for human health research, for example, stem cell research, was found to exhibit a different public response than non-health related human cloning. This differentiation in subtopic concerning cloning must be included as a part of this study to eliminate the possibility of an problem with test subjects mis-interpreting what is meant by "Cloning." The same sample population will be used to test all four hypothesis, as this will help to measure gender differences that exist dependent upon the final use of the cloned material.

Delimitations of Study

The primary focus of this study is to explore the factors that may influence the results of public opinions polls concerning cloning issues. There are many demographic issues that could serve to confound the results of the study such as socio-economic status, social issues including religion of the subject, educational status, rural or urban upbringing, amount of knowledge in general about cloning, mass media effects and many other issues. This study will focus on attempting to isolate the issue of gender as a predictor of acceptance or rejection of cloning. This study may be effected by the above issues, or other issues that have not been identified. An attempt will be made to eliminate these variables from the research by carefully selecting a balanced sample population. The sample will be balanced of with an equal number of males and females. The other variables will identified through demographic questions and the final sample population will be of homogeneous demographics made up of both male and female subjects.

The issue of isolating a demographic issue in s survey can be easily accomplished by sample selection. However, this does place a limitation of the scope and applicability of the project. In this case, the study cannot be realistically applied to the general sample population outside the identified demographic group. This is the opposite of the surveys cited in the media, where the dependent variables were not identified. In this case the research cannot be applied to the general population either because it is not known if the study is valid due to sample bias.

This study eliminates the issue of sample bias, but has a limited real scope of applicability. The focus of the research is to answer the question, "Does gender bias exist in the opinions between males and females regarding the cloning issue?" If the results do show that a difference doe exist, then further studies should be conducted to determine if these results are applicable to larger populations or different demographic groups. If no gender differences are found to exist in the sample population then it may be repeated with other demographic groups using the same survey instrument to determine if other differences exist. If gender differences are not found to exist in opinions regarding cloning issues, then media reports on public opinion will have more validity and can be counted on as a more reliable source of information.

Definitions

Cloning - The practice of reproducing an entire living creature of any species from a single cell or very small group of cells by means other than natural reproductive methods of the species

Natural Reproductive Methods - Reproduction that occurs without the aid of a human being in any way. In the case of a human, this definition will include invitro fertilization, intercourse, or any other method where the fetus is implanted into a female uterus and grows there until its live birth.

Cloning of animals for human use - Cloning animals for the purposes of greater food production or the harvest of any other product used by humans for medicine, clothing, food, or any other human need.

Genetically Modified Foods - Shall include food products, either plant or animal that have been artificially modified to produce a genetically superior product. In the case of plants, this will not include those that have been breed by selective pollination. It will only include plants that have been genetically modified by gene-splicing and other such techniques (for example Starlink corn).

Human Cloning for the treatment of human disease - Shall mean the cloning of a human species for the purpose of harvest of a portion of that human for the relief of human disease in another human being. This shall be applicable whether the human clone reaches maturity or not.

Human Cloning for non-health related reasons - shall mean the cloning of human beings for the sole purpose of producing a fully viable, mature, live-born human being, for reasons other than harvest of organs to treat disease.

Literature Review

There have been many public opinion polls conducted in formal and informal settings regarding public opinion concerning cloning. Many of these contain generalizations such as the following found in the April 2001 issue of The Economist, poll last month by Time/CNN found that 67% of people thought that animal cloning was "a bad idea"; 90% opposed human cloning. There were strong majorities even against cloning to produce vital organs to save others (68%) and to help infertile parents to have children (76%): (The Economist, 2001).

This literature review will not concern itself with articles and studies containing generalizations such as these. One will notice that there has been no separation of demographic information and nothing is known of the sample population, including the size. Poorly conducted studies such as this were the inspiration for the design of this study.

Cloning involves many subtle issues such as the disposition of fetuses that result from failed attempts at human cloning. The Canadian Institutes of Health Research have released new guidelines that allow leftover human embryos to be used for medical research. However, it forbids humans to be cloned for this purpose (Smith, 2002). The British however, finds nothing in their law to forbid this practice (Smith, 2002). This demonstrates the wide difference of opinion that exists regarding this issue.

On similar scientific issues, including using animal research, gender differences in the acceptability of the practice were found. A study by Pifer (1996) found that among 10th graders females were more likely to support animal rights and be opposed to animal research than were men. Other studies supported the gender differences on opinions surrounding controversial science issues between males and females (Bailey, 1994 and Herzog, Betchart, & Pittman, 1991.

Buwald (2002) found that in a gender balanced group of New Zealanders an understanding of how scientific decisions are decided resulted in more confidence in science in general. Women engineering students tended to have less confidence in their abilities than did male students (Felder et.al. 1995). This study found that these attitudes ultimately affected their performance. It also discovered several other demographic factors that had an effect on the final results including whether the subject was from a rural or urban setting or their socioeconomic status. Although the subject matter of these studies did not match the topic of this research precisely, the factors that influenced their outcome will be applicable to this research as well.

Methodology

This research will involve the gathering of data concerning the gender differences in of opinions on cloning issues between males and females. It will involve the administration of a survey to both test groups. The differences of the groups will be tested using the Z-test for statistical significance. Descriptive statistical methods will be used to describe differences between the two groups. A p-value of.05 will be used as criteria for accepting or rejecting the null hypothesis for all four of the hypotheses in question.

The most important factor in the design of this study is the selection and classification of the sample population. This will be accomplished by selecting only subjects that meet specific demographic criteria. The sample population will consist of third year students at an academic institution. The students will be asked screening question to determine socioeconomic status, rural or urban upbringing, and other factors. Only those meeting the criteria will be used as test subjects. The survey will be gender balanced and consist of 25 males and 25 females of similar demographic makeup. Demographic groups will be cross-tabulated in an attempt to identify any other sample biases that may be present.