Intersectionality and Gender in War Times

Gender-Based Violence

Introduction

There are a variety of factors that can contribute to why some belligerents in armed conflict are more likely to commit gender-based violence than others. One key factor is the level of social and political power held by women within the society. When women have fewer rights and are less able to participate in public life, they are more likely to be targets of gender-based violence. Another key factor is the level of militarization within the society. When there is a high degree of militarization, there is a higher likelihood of gender-based violence being used as a tool of warfare. Also worth considering is the level of economic development within a society, which can also be a reason why gender-based violence occurs among belligerents. When poverty levels are high, women are often forced into situations where they are more vulnerable to violence. Consequently, there is a clear link between various social factors and the likelihood of gender-based violence occurring during armed conflict. This can tie into the presence of misogyny and/or patriarchal attitudes within the group committing the offenses. When women are seen as inferior to men, or their worth is primarily based on their reproductive capacity, they are more likely to be subjected to violence. Additionally, groups that condone or encourage the use of drugs and alcohol are also more likely to commit gender-based violence, as substances can lower inhibitions and increase aggressive behaviors. Finally, it is worth noting that groups who have a history of committing human rights violations are also more likely to target women with violence during armed conflict. By understanding these key factors, one can begin to see the root causes of gender-based violence in armed conflict (Henry, 2016). Ultimately, the main causes are cultural and this paper will show why that is by discussing each of these factors in turn and showing how they are rooted in culture.

Theory and Framework

There is no single theory that can explain all instances of gender-based violence in conflict. However, there are a number of concepts that can help to understanding the often complex and multi-layered nature of these experiences. For example, the concept of “militarization of gender” highlights how conflict can lead to rigid cultural norms around masculinity and femininity, which in turn can contribute to violence (Feitz & Nagel, 2008). The concept of “scapegoating” can help to explain how groups in conflict may target individuals or groups based on their perceived gender identity (MacLeod, 2019). And the concept of “intersectionality” underscores how multiple factors - such as race, ethnicity, religion, and disability - can interact to create unique experiences of violence (Gill, 2018). Each of these concepts provides valuable insights into the causes and consequences of gender-based violence in conflict. However, it is important to remember that these are only theoretical frameworks, and that every instance of gender-based violence must be considered in its own context.

Militarization of Gender

The militarization of gender is the process by which traditional ideas about femininity and masculinity are used to justify and legitimize war and violence. The term can be used to describe the ways in which women and men are expected to conform to specific gender roles in the military, as well as the ways in which militaries and armed groups use gender as a weapon of war. Gender norms play an important role in the recruitment and training of soldiers, as well as in how wars are fought. For example, women are often seen as more suitable for roles such as nursing or secretarial work, while men are considered better suited for combat roles. This division of labor often reinforces ideas about women’s inferiority and men’s superiority. In addition, militaries and armed groups often use rape as a weapon of war, targeting women of enemy communities in order to demoralize and humiliate them. The militarization of gender thus relies on a number of harmful stereotypes and prejudices that ultimately serve to legitimize violence.

At root it is cultural process that can take generations to normalize and embed within society (Feitz & Nagel, 2008).

Scapegoating

Scapegoating occurs when individuals or groups are unfairly blamed for the problems or challenges faced by others. In the context of gender-based violence, scapegoating can take many forms. For example, men may be blamed for the violence perpetrated against women, or certain communities may be scapegoated for the ills of society more broadly. Scapegoating can have dangerous consequences, as it can lead to further discrimination and violence against those who are targeted. It is important to challenge scapegoating in all its forms in order to create a more inclusive and just society (MacLeod, 2019).

Intersectionality

Intersectionality is a term that has been used to describe the way in which different forms of discrimination intersect and interact with one another. With regard to gender-based violence, intersectionality refers to the way in which different forms of oppression can combine to create unique experiences of violence and discrimination. For example, a woman who is also a member of an ethnic minority group or who has a disability may experience higher levels of violence and discrimination than a woman who does not have these additional intersections. Intersectionality also highlights the way in which different forms of privilege can protect or expose individuals to different forms of violence. For example, a wealthy woman may be able to afford private security or to live in a gated community, which can protect her from some forms of violence. However, she may also be more likely to be targeted by violent criminals because of her wealth. Intersectionality is an important concept to consider when thinking about gender-based violence because it highlights the complex reality of lived experiences and the need for tailor-made solutions (Gill, 2018).

Social and Political Power of Women

When women are socioeconomically empowered, they are less likely to experience violence in conflict zones. This is because women with economic power are better able to protect themselves and their loved ones from harm. In addition, women who hold political power are better able to influence policy-making in their countries, which can help to prevent or mitigate the effects of gender-based violence. For example, female politicians may be more likely to pass laws that protect women from violence, or to allocate resources to support victims of abuse. Therefore, it is clear that empowering women socially and politically can help reduce the incidence of gender-based violence among belligerents. In states where women have more social and political power it is less likely that gender-based violence would occur among that state’s belligerents in an armed conflict (Feitz & Nagel, 2008; Gill, 2018; Henry, 2016; MacLeod, 2019). Among belligerents who hail from a state where women have no social or political power, the likelihood of these belligerents engaging in gender-based violence is higher.

Thus, some armed groups may see women and girls as “spoils of war” that can be used and abused at will. In addition, gender-based violence can be used as a tool of warfare, to terrorize and demoralize opponents. In some cases, it may also be seen as a way to control and subdue women who are seen as rebellious or disruptive. Yet the belligerents who act in this manner undoubtedly hail from states where women have little to no social or political power; these belligerents are conditioned culturally to act in this manner because they do not see women as equals (Henry, 2016). One empirical example of this is the case of Boko Haram, which kidnapped 200 Nigerian school girls as part of a tactical but also cultural effort to demoralize and destabilize its target population (Lewis, 2014).

Militarization within Society

Militarization within society may also lead to gender-based violence among some belligerents and not among others because of the effect that such militarization has on the human psyche and how it can dehumanize some people in their perspectives (Feitz & Nagel, 2008). Thus, violence that includes a wide range of human rights abuses, such as rape, sexual slavery, forced marriage, and other forms of sexual violence can occur among some belligerents who are adversely affected by militarization but not among others who have not had their perspectives dehumanized. Another empirical example is seen in the case of the Sudan military personnel committing rape in over 200 reported cases in 2014, ordered to do so by superior officers who wanted soldiers to use rape as a weapon of war (Center for Gender, 2020).

When societies become militarized, traditional gender roles and norms often become exacerbated (MacLeod, 2019). Women are typically seen as more passive and nurturing, while men are seen as more aggressive and powerful. This can create an environment in which men feel they have the right to use force against women, and where women are seen as being responsible for men's actions. Plus, militarization often leads to an increase in weapons and firearms in society. This can lead to a culture of violence, in which the use of force is seen as a legitimate way to resolve conflict. Considering that militaries are often male-dominated institutions, which can create an environment in which women are not respected or valued, it is not difficult to see how such a culture can impact some belligerents in very negative ways. This can clearly result in some military personnel feeling that they can mistreat women with impunity (Gill, 2018; Henry, 2016). All of these factors can contribute to gender-based violence in armed conflicts from a cultural understanding.

Poverty Levels

Intersectionality provides an important theoretical perspective when it comes to poverty and gender-based violence among belligerents in an armed conflict. Poverty can lead to a power imbalance between men and women, as well as other factors such as a lack of education and economic opportunities. Poverty can create social and economic inequality, which can be a driver of conflict. For example, in the Democratic Republic of Congo, poverty levels are among the highest in the world and conflict is endemic. In such cases, it is often difficult for women to obtain the resources they need to survive and thrive, making them more vulnerable to exploitation and violence (Henry, 2016).

Misogyny

Scapegoating provides another important theoretical perspective when it comes to the factor of misogyny in some cultures and its effect among some belligerents in armed conflict. Scapegoating theory posits that individuals or groups may be blamed for the shortcomings of others in order to diffuse responsibility and maintain a sense of stability. In terms of cultural misogyny, this manifests in the belief that women are responsible for the failures of men, and thus must be controlled and subservient in order to protect male power. This dynamic is evident in many societies, but is particularly pronounced in contexts of war. In times of conflict, gender-based violence against women is often used as a tool of warfare, with the aim of degrading and terrorizing the enemy. By scapegoating women, belligerents can maintain a sense of control and power, even in the face of chaos and destruction. In this way, cultural misogyny has a direct and harmful impact on gender-based violence in war (MacLeod, 2019).

Substance Abuse

Societies that permit substance abuse (disordered use of drugs or alcohol) are more likely to see their belligerents engage in gender-based violence in war time as well. This is because their soldiers are already dehumanized with respect to themselves and they devalue others, especially those whom they deem weaker. A loss of inhibitions occurs when one is under the influence of substances. Moreover, drugs and alcohol often create feelings of invincibility, which can make belligerents more likely to engage in risky and dangerous activities, including sexual violence. Studies of soldiers who have served in combat zones have found that those who used drugs or alcohol were more likely to commit rape or other forms of sexual assault. Given the link between substance abuse and gender-based violence, it is not surprising that drug and alcohol use may help explain why some belligerents engage in this behavior while others do not (Gill, 2018; Henry, 2016). Additionally, empirical evidence provided by the UN (2014) shows that in Myanmar “proximity to drugs makes women more vulnerable to physical and sexual violence, exploitation and psychological abuse [and] approximately 6 out of 10 Mexican migrant women are victims of rape or other sexualized violence as they come in contact with drug smugglers.” This empirical data suggests a link between substance abuse and violence.