Non-traditional security threats in the European Union: a theoretical framework

Non-Traditional Security Threats and the EU

Theoretical Study

Terrorism

Weapons of Mass Destruction and Nuclear Threat

Regional Conflict

Organized Crime

Environmental Degradation

Non-Traditional Security Threats and the EU

Due to the discontentment with the conventional concepts of security, the research schedule based on these conventional concepts, associated theoretical debates and their impact on policy, have given rise to the idea of non-traditional security. In the present era, it is universally acknowledged that security possesses multifaceted characteristics. Growing from the components of military and political units of the days of the Cold War, it has presently come to achieve new magnitude i.e. which is composed of economic, social, environmental based and educational oriented. These are not brought together under the military characteristics of security and they encompass a whole lot, ranging from macroeconomic equilibrium to environmental based.

Non-traditional security risks like extremism or terrorist activities, weapons which lead to mass destruction, crimes which are done in an organized fashion, and environmental hazards continue to plague the European Union. These irregular dangers are the most troublesome as they are difficult to discover, prevent and shield against. Following the shielding of U.S. from all fronts, the conventional fear of the present world from military attacks looks to have vanished for a considerable period now. While describing dangers to Europe, it is pertinent to bear in mind that pacification, particularly during the interwar periods, was an overriding strategy of the leading West European countries. The dangers are to be eliminated by describing it out of being, through pacification and adjustment.

Theoretical Study:

The most exhaustive study of the notion of security in the international relations writing has been given by Barry Buzan. Maybe the most continuing facet of Buzan's involvement to the discussion over security has been his splitting up of the security plan into five spheres. Political-based, Military-based, economics, social and environmental are the five spheres. He reasoned that the state can be subjected to dangers from each of these spheres, and that the state can be exposed to a varied measure to these diverse sectoral perils. We are all conversant about the conventional approach to security which is military threats and military security that is simple to judge. It has been identified by Buzan that military intimidation are specifically vital to states, and due to this, security relating to military has been revered as bearing an important position in the research of security. He consents with this, to an extent, since military danger can overpower any of the remaining sectors, by involving aggressive pressure. (Buzan, 1991, p.61) vital premise of his debate, however, is that security perils i.e. defenselessness has many forms than the military only. Buzan argues that political hazards are those directed at the steadiness of the state, in terms of organization. They can assume from an insignificant type of force for change of guard, and vary up to form a separate state, or even engineer an uprising. Buzan identifies this type of threat with the ideological rivalry between the U.S. And the Soviet Union at the time of Cold War. The legality of each state was founded on political principles basically in variance from the other. The leap, thus, of the beliefs of each one caused a danger, which could be very true in fact. The crumbling of the Eastern Europe, bear in mind, is comprehended, in a small measure, by the discouragement of the legality of the states in Eastern part of Europe. Whether they appreciate it of not, these states was confronted with a very strong political danger by the notions of liberal democracy of the western part of Europe. Intimately related to similar political dangers is what Buzan regards societal dangers, the dangers which intimidate the solidarity of the society, although the organizational veracity of the state itself is not at peril. In this class, for instance, Buzan adds the danger to Islamic cultures caused by the Western concept and also the danger to the culture of France caused by the globalization of the U.S. culture. (Buzan, 1991, p.80)

Buzan's fourth sphere of threat is economic threat. He identifies that difficulties exist with the concept of economic-based security, but wishes to remain with it till the uprightness of the state can depend on its economic state of affairs. Hence dangers to the economy of a sovereign state or society can render the integrity of the state vulnerable, and hence could be assumed difficulties of security. The concept of economic security was thought provoking while Buzan was authoring, when the oil shortages of the 1970 had come to light regarding the defenselessness of the supposedly influential states were in this sphere. Buzan in his ultimate sector of analysis defines the environmental sector wherein the states are confronted with the threats from the degeneration of the environment that can influence their organizational steadiness, legality and economic-oriented security. (Buzan, 1991, p.146)

Thus, Buzan debates, that it is necessary to see that these ecological dangers are regarded as a distinct sector on the security plan. It is pertinent to bear that the spotlight of Buzan's apprehension is still the security of the state. Buzan continues to debate in his discussion about the environmental security that it constitutes a security problem when it places the state at peril. Finally, Buzan's involvement of the security question is to widen the plan instead of modifying it basically. The conventional idea of security envisioned threats totally in military language. Buzan extends that notion to visualize threat and susceptibility from a multiplicity of elements. (Buzan, 1991, p.253)

Chapter-2

Weapons of mass destruction and nuclear threat

The peace and security in international arena are at stake by the propagation of the arms and ammunitions aiming at mass destruction. The striving of terrorists for attainment of the weapons of mass destruction has multiplied the magnitude of fear. The propagation of the weapons of mass destruction during the post Cold War periods has posed the greatest of the menaces to European countries. The probability of causing innumerable deaths and injuries with use of Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD) by the organized criminal groups has become a reality deserving serious attention particularly in post-2001 incident. The production of the Weapons of Mass Destruction has become smoothened by research of some states as an entry in to the technology. N. Korea and Iran have the probability of striking Europe with possession of such Weapons of Mass Destruction, even though the possibilities from Iraq and like countries in this case have been avoided. (William, 2003, p.16)

This has become a matter of serious concern to Europe and reflected their reaction in the policies with regard to impositions on arms, creation of specific departments of homeland defense, and starting the missile defense strategies. Accelerations in the field of distribution of the weapons has also been seen with the technological dissemination in the field of missiles from N. Korea to other states as one of the example. Investigative reports indicate keenness of the organized criminal groups like Al Qaeda of acquiring the necessary skills in procurement and production of WMDs. The keenness of the criminal groups especially towards biological and chemical WMDs is increasing. However, it is not possible to identify the clandestine practices of the terrorists with regard to pre-arrangements for application of the weapons and even if the weapons are applied it is not possible to identify its performers. Stocks of outdated, discarded armed instruments, including nuclear submarines of Russia and innumerable banned landmines, seem to lie unused within the vicinity of the Eastern Europe. (Solana, 2003, p.10)

There is every possibility of them giving rise to hazardous mishaps; giving scope to the criminal groups for utilization of the same with ill motive; and inducing the authorities to pass them on to the irresponsible users. European countries are observed to prioritize less for being ready to counteract the threat of terrorist assaults with Weapons of Mass Destruction in comparison to that of the threat of assault by the conventional weapons. The fear aroused at the time of actual application of the weapons by the terrorists encourages them to assault at greater magnitude. The conventional security mechanism of the state existing presently normally proves to be futile when the organized criminal groups are armed with the weapons of mass destruction. The new fears with regard to such terrorist activities necessitated the states to devise new policies and new measures for combating the anticipated terrorism. (Spear, 2003, p.8)

In the changing scenario anticipatory measures are worth adopting by the states without actually an act of terrorism occurs. The underlying principle of the security policy during Cold War was a preventive one, thereby restricting the use of weapons by the enemies. The Weapons of Mass Destruction under the structure of this policy were viewed as the arms of final option and used after having no other alternative. Presently, the organized criminal groups consider the Weapons of Mass Destruction as the prime weapon in their armory that provides them enough power even to challenge the super powers. The states therefore cannot rely on the policy of deterrence against the opponents who actually are not acquiescent to it.

Complete eradication of the fear of the danger through an appropriate policy by the state is therefore the cry of the day and that too actually much before the first attack of the enemy. The approach denoted as preventive policy encompasses military, political, economic and other policies. The objective of implementation of the preventive policy is not only combating the terrorism but also involve broader objectives of ensuring stability in the existing structure and social framework, establishment of democracy in feeble states, detecting and disrupting the criminal interconnections, ensuring non-propagation of WMD organization etc. This involves elimination of all probable menace to become real hazards. (William, 2003, p.17)

US would have demonstrated a destructive nuclear counter attack against Saddam had it aware of the fact that Saddam was the provoker. Likewise any attack in European nations would result in similar counterattacks. Many of the parts of European territory are within the vicinity of the missiles of Saddam; however, most of the area is safeguarded by the Transatlantic Treaty. NATO represents even today represents the strategy of combined protection. Under this perspective it is, therefore, foreseen that utilization of the nuclear weapons and Weapons of Mass Destruction poses a serious threat to the restored balance in the region. Such probability is still a matter of great concern, however, expected to have differed influence on the international military intervention, in comparison to the direct striking. The European Union with planned strategies of general principles of export restriction also ensuring its imposition on the new member nations to counteract the problem is said to have in good position of handling the problem and also diffusing the idea to the fellow neighboring nations. (Solana, 2003, p.10)

Irrespective of this strategy, Europe necessitates policy of regulating the military firms producing weapons and also the investments in this regard with a view to deter them from initiating competitiveness of the arms production and undermine technological inventions in some other localities. For this may result in their security hazards. The member nations are required to strive for fulfilling the European Union's oath of safeguarding the financial resources, gradual combined efforts for demolition of the Weapons of Mass Destruction and related elements in Russia and other fellow nations. Efforts should also be made for establishment of accountable military and arms policy in Balkans during the post Dayton steps of disarmament. (Spear, 2003, p.9)

The crises of strategic nuclear weapons, which have not been dealt with properly by the East-West agreements and which appear to exist in large quantity in Russia, are required to be addressed effectively. Inclusion of the policies with regard to arms control, control on exports, gradual demolition and ageing of the weapons found excess within the improvements in the arms policy of EU, adds legitimacy and wide acceptability. Besides the European Union armed forces and defense specialists assist the adjoining nations in improvement and restructuring their military base, destruction of arms and devising policies of controlling arms and export items.

Chapter-4

Regional Conflict

The State is reminded of its primary task of maintaining a secured atmosphere in light of the new avenues of hazards to the security. The hazards for secured environment, presently pre-dominant, make the institution of real State to have little relevance to the hopes and aspirations of individuals that constitutes the inseparable element of the State. The security concern of a state has been enhanced manifold due to the reason that it is no more confined to the locality alone. In order to counter act the international network of criminal groups, international understanding worldwide is essential for restoration of both internal and external security. The global expansion of the scope of the criminal organisations necessitates international collaboration for counteraction. Sacrifice of a portion of their autonomy is to be made by the states for this purpose in broader perspective, with a view to safeguarding the state dominion in future. (Williams, 1980, p.3)

This was not new and practised successfully since long in case of policies in other fields. To fruitfully safeguard the wider interest of the nations the strategy for global governance along with development of necessary systems and institutions has already begun in many of the nations. The improvement in States efficiency has been seen in the accessibility of the newer fields of operation into the scope of global governance through the concepts of internationalisation and trans-nationalisation. However, the area of maintenance of internal security is since long been neglected from this point-of-view and developments in this regard is still considered to be new. The settlement of Cold War is not a permanent solution for disputes among the nations worldwide. The existence of divergences and conflicts still give rise to wars among the nations. However, local disagreements seem to be more persisting than the war between superpowers. (Marks; McAdam, 1996, p.257)

Normally regional dominance of one nation over another is the cause of regional disharmony. These small disputes attract interference by the superpowers. In the interests of international stability and security, the possibility of integration of super powers will be strong particularly when the regional invaders are considered as endangering the external security. The invaders will have few associates to back up in view of the united confrontation of the super powers. However, a few states will prefer to fight single-handed. Interference of the super powers in the affairs of regional military disputes is necessitated in consideration to the global interest. The regional dispute prevails in many adjacent areas of Europe. Predominant among them are persisting disputes between Korea and Arab world having the potentialities for war between two nations having devastating effects on Europe. United States has been observed to resort to the policy of mediation and also pre-emption while Europe seems to have resorted to diplomacy advocating prevention. (Solana, 2003, p.10)

Chapter-5

Organized Crime

The organized offence or crime, since long confined only to a few countries, during last one and half decades is considered to be a matter of international concern. At the beginning of the present century it has become a matter of great concern to many of the international agencies, state organs, general individuals, political parties, etc. previously who were not worried about it. In the scenario of widespread national and international illegal markets, growing international movements of the criminals and their growing potentialities to shatter the domestic economy and influence the political organs during the 1980s, the structured offence has become prime matter of concern for many of the regional and inter-regional organs and individuals. The establishment of free border, synchronized, single economic market among the member nations has been ensured through postulates of European Union which itself created a secured environment. (Ruggiero, 1997, p. 30)

This avoided any scope for war among the member nations and made the influence of cross-border problems negligible. Besides, giving scope for sharing of resources to counterattack the contingent needs resulted in extension of the security concern to other nations and ensured collaborative counterattack. However, all these are not considered sufficient in view of the existences of other critical factors and lapses. Being a wealthiest part of the globe, Europe has become a prime goal of the structured terrorism which evolved beyond its boarders. Economic integration in Europe fostered the illegal drug trade in greater magnitude posing new intimidations of the organized crime. It is quite impossible to differentiate between the criminals such as illicit drug traders, human traffickers, extremist invaders, terrorists once they enter into the Schengen border from the normal individuals. (Ruggiero, 2000, p.56)

The existing free economy and transmission system facilitate them in interchanging of data and acquisition of resources. The real problem is not being aware of these deficiencies and relying on the normal security systems, policies and institutions. The concern for critical security issues seems to have been absent in many countries because of non-occurrence of past untoward incidences and they also not inclined to intensify them infusing the threats into the innocent individuals. If such tendency persists it is evident that they will never think of improving the security structure or will never make efforts to make the individuals aware of being prepared for prompt reaction in times of contingency.

Organized crime has become the fostered child of illicit commerce. The black money so earned is used to fund the increased offence and being made white in the process. Even though existence of the organized crime was seen prior to 1989 yet it was confined to the locality of its origin. It spread to international arena with initiation of national integration and relaxations at the borders. An analysis of the structure of the operating teams of the organized criminals in the European Union nations reveals its international importance. The criminals of different member nations are operating collaboratively. Nearly two thirds of the probes into the organized crimes in Germany have proved existence of such association among the varied organizations. Such diverse groups united for the purpose of crime constituted about half of the total existing organized criminal groups. In the country of the Greeks the investigations have revealed that each of the teams of the organized crime included an alien criminal as its member. A consideration from the geographical point-of-view it is revealed that all the member countries have an organized criminal group of the domestic origin. (Ruggiero, 2000, p.68)

However, the influence of the criminal groups of international origin is profound so far as organized crime in the member nations of the European Union is concerned. The member nations of European Union emphasize on the international character of the organized crimes with free movement of the criminals across the borders, where organized terrorism is considered only of national origin. The spread of international criminal groups among the member nations are determined by the historical, cultural and geographical aspects. The existence of racial minority in the member nations are considered to be a factor giving scope for operation of international criminal groups.

Many of the national reviews brought out the alliance of these regional minorities with the alien criminal groups. The spread of Turkish criminal groups in ten of the European Union member nations and Chinese criminal groups in nine of the member nations are evidences of the nexus between the criminal groups of foreign origin and domestic racial minorities. These two groups are mainly engaged in illegal drug trading. Evidences of alliances between the home criminal groups and the international network of drug trade are noticed in many of the European Union nations. Mutual support and fraternity exists, among the individuals both within and outside among the member nations.

Most of the organized criminal groups engage them selves in diverse criminal acts while some concentrate on specific acts. In Netherlands it is seen that forty percent of the criminal groups are engaged in multiple criminal activities. The magnitude of international nexus among the groups determines the concern for organized terrorism. The empirical studies reveal engagement of about over thirty percent to eighty percent of the organized criminal groups existing in the European Union member nations in illicit drug trading. Criminal organizations of national and international origin administer the inflow and delivery of the drugs depending upon their area of operation and the kind of products. It has been observed that the criminal organizations engaged in illicit drug trading also associated with varied criminal acts. Illicit drug trading and dacoit are seen as associated characteristics of the criminal organizations in some of the member nations of European Union. (Ruggiero, 2000, p.68)

Evidences of shifting to the illicit drug trading by the criminal organizations practicing conventional crimes have been observed in some other nations. Gradual attainment of capabilities to handle the international network of illicit drug trading by the regional criminal organizations is evident from these instances. In the majority of the member nations of European Union human trafficking is being observed as one of the arranged criminal offence. In these activities alliance of criminal organizations of both national and international origin, even from the enemy nations is being observed. Smuggling of arms and ammunitions, ecological offences, illicit betting, frauds are other criminal activities, also noticed in greater magnitudes in the member nations. The criminal organizations having national roots are mostly engaged in deceptive activities as is seen in Netherlands. Moreover, impersonation, blackmail, dacoit, automobile stealing etc. are other forms criminal activities found in the European Union nations according to the review report. (Spear, 2003, p. 7)

About 50% of the reports that visualizes the association of business organs expresses about the problems of confirming the total amount of funding in the sphere of the organized crime. The gain and loss in this regard have been assessed by only three such reports. Varied causes have been attributed towards dependence of the criminal activities on commercial organs. The commercial organs seem to back a specific crime; the hiding of the activity is possible through the business organs; and the illicit returns of the crime can possibly be made legal through the business organs. The scope of utilization of the business organs in criminal activity is dependent upon their geographical positioning. Exertion of pressure by the organized groups of criminal activity in 50% of the states has been reported. In respect of some states it is prevalent in terms of dishonesty while in some other states the form is vague. The fraction of the total criminal organizations mainly resorting to the legalization of money is not considered by many of the reports. (Spear, 2003, p. 7)

Except one in almost all the fourteen EU nations characterized by the illicit drug trading the criminals resort to legalization of money activities. Studies in two of the member nations reveals about the practicing legalization of illegal money by the criminal organizations engaged in illicit drug trading. Even though, it is pertinent to point out that the illicit drug trading is not the only avenue of legalizing illegal money still the involvement in these activities are more remarkable. The criminal organizations having roots in Russia are resorting primarily to these activities rather than illicit drug trading. The deficiencies of the security structure in the eastern European nations have been indicated by the European Union Organized Crime Report during 1994 as reason for increased criminal activity in the locality. The legalization of money activity as a part of the organized criminal activity is observed to be prevalent in the areas where these deficiencies in the security structure are more prevalent. (Ruggiero, 2000, p.86)

There is every possibility of occurrence of security threats to a nation to originate from remote places beyond the national boundaries in the current scenario. The illicit trading of drugs initiates in an area of production and transported to far-off countries and illicit sale proceeds are legalized in some other countries. The fact necessitates the scope of security policy to expand to counteract threats from the originating areas may be much beyond once territory. The security policy should not confine its area of operation to the national boundaries but also try to seek its origin. The limitation of present international law forbidding the nations to intervene in the internal affairs of another nation to safeguard the autonomy of the state still persists. This limitation of restoration of the idea of non-intervention dissuades the states in implementation of the policies off prevention and pre-emption to combat the threats at its origin. (Ruggiero, 1997, p. 31)

The EU, constituting a single economic organization, however, does not exhibit a particular European trend. Worldwide organization of the criminal activities such as illicit drug trading, fraudulent activities, efforts for legalization of the black money, human trafficking and other such criminal activities are also prevalent at greater magnitudes. The problem of organized crime in the European Union member nations traces its origin to many foreign localities. Due to this the counteraction of the organized crime has become a multifaceted affair. It involves collection and detailed study of the data pertaining to the criminal groups having multinational operation. The evidence of operation of the many of the criminal organizations since long proves their strength to sustain the counteractions of the law enforcing authorities. Exertion of the influences on the controlling authorities, both executive and judiciary, through dishonesty and offence with a view to safeguarding their objective has made the problem more burdensome. Formation of the criminal organizations both the regional as well as international are improving day by day to become more and more complex and refined. (Spear, 2003, p. 8)

Newer groups are coming up devoting themselves particularly in the activities of making the black money white. The criminal scenario of European Union deserves urgent attention and needs instant counteraction. Absence of a core organization in some of the member nations of European Union is felt seriously particularly, in respect of finding out the scope and progress of the criminal activities after collecting and studying the related data in this regard. The effects of illicit legalization of black money in the European Union cannot be correctly assessed in absence of such core body. Correct evaluation of the scope of the organized crime in the EU is not possible in absence of consistent statistical information. However, the uninterrupted growth of the organized criminal activities is being felt seriously over the period of time. Counteraction against the organized criminal activity is therefore much warranted especially in view of the rising mutual collaboration of the criminal groups worldwide. (Ruggiero, 1997, p. 33)

Chapter-6

Environmental Degradation

Environmental hazards vary from noxious spillages to massive global warming. Pollution of the environment can result in acute impairment as we have witnessed of late in the coastal areas of the South of Europe. Massive warming of the world will lead to wide ranging and erratic weather variation, distorted productions in the farming sector and increasing grades of the sea. All these local problems will impact the economic production at the national level and export and import of food grains and also will affect diplomatic relations with foreign nations. More and more tough bacteria and viruses that can take benefit of the worldwide transport infrastructures, pitiable sanitation and overcrowding in urban areas can multiply rapidly.

In the Europe's tumultuous history, the later part of the 20th century has been a remarkable phase. Till the late 1980s, the area was discernible by severe political and social and economic disparities between the market driven economies of some parts of the region and centralized planning made by the economies in the remaining areas of the region, with restricted cooperation and often severe disagreement among the different parts of the region. The standard of living in Western Europe has enhanced gradually since the mid-half of the 1940's along with the mounting productions in the field of industry and agriculture. Indications of acute environmental devastation became more and more apparent during the 60s and 70s and several nations took notice by developing policies relating to improving the environment. During the initial period the efforts were aimed at reducing contamination problems of the environment. These matters, blended with the causes like the steep price of power at the time of the oil crises, and these have improved the conditions. (Foster, 1997, p.31)

But other areas have lagged behind: for instance 14% of the carbon dioxide discharges of the world are accounted for by the western part of Europe. Growth under the centralized planning authority in Europe meant a growth of material production, particularly in the industry and energy sectors causing acute depletion of renewable and non-renewable items. Industries which produce Iron, steel, etc.; production of energy resources and the military division all contributed in a substantial manner to the increased levels of contamination of the environment. Excessive specialization was an important component of planning that brought about comparatively huge need for transportation that produced great environmental stress in certain sectors. However there were several encouraging things for the environmental world: the extensive use of transport use by the public in place of private vehicles, robust systems imposed by the state for conservation of environment, recycling of packaging for food articles, adhering to several agricultural forestry methods which are sustainable, and the isolated dumping of waste for recycling in several countries. (O' Riordan; Juger, 1996, p. 74)

Another positive strength was the high standard of education. Contemporary human activities has degraded the top soil in Europe leading to irreparable damage causing soil erosion, pollution and the blocking of the pores of the soil. Large tracts of Europe has been affected due to soil erosion with above fifteen percent of the land in Europe is damaged to some extent. The Mediterranean area is one of the regions most acutely affected due to the environmental changes. Alteration in land use pattern, like desertion of land having less vegetation and rising occurrence of fires of the forest area have had affected greatly the soil resources since ancient periods. In the most severe instances, soil erosion combined with other types of degeneration of areas has caused formation of deserts in several regions. Northern part of European continent has also been affected due to soil erosion albeit in a far less extent. Soils are subjected to pressure due to growth of population along with rapid urbanization, while strengthening of agricultural practices is rendering the soils more vulnerable to depletion. On account of blocking of soil surfaces as a result of increased urbanization and building of new buildings has been the principal cause of soil degradation in the greatly developed and populous nations of Europe. (Marcinkiewicz, 1997, p.55)

Though significant advances have been made in improving the characteristics of the environment, the conditions are not so satisfactory. Presently, there is proof that causes of the presence of granular substances in the environment which is present at the ground level impair the well-being of several persons daily. Numerous man-created compounds inclusive of pesticides remain in the environment, staying for years, on which we have not enough information regarding their long-term consequences on health. Though a gamut of particular policy performances are being taken up to confront those difficulties, they are not enough by themselves to tackle the intricate swelling interaction between the environment and well-being. A lot of severe environment and health-connected difficulties have been untangled, but many yet remain to be attended, especially regarding the health proposition of unremitting exposures. Particularly, less concern has been given to the interaction of various contaminants in the human body as also about the pollution in the world. (Marcinkiewicz, 1997, p.55)

Yet exposure in very small doses over a considerable span of period to an intricate mixture of contaminants in the environment and consumable items is expected to facilitate in a substantial manner to the health level of the people of Europe. It is calculated that nearly twenty-five to over thirty percent of the saddle of ailments in industrialized nations can be ascribed to environmental causes, with the substantial chunk of this inflicting children and vulnerable sections. The seriousness of the predicament is also alleged by most of Europeans. In a latest finding, less than ninety percent are concerned about the likely influence of the environment on their health. Besides, novel technologies, transforming lifestyles, work and living patterns, offer new and at times unforeseen influences on the environment and its impact on human body. The EU is determined to deal with the problem in a tangible manner. It has taken up a new technique to deal with the environmental hazards and health of humans with the general objective to trim down ailments resulting due to environmental causes. In the pursuit of attaining this objective, we need to have a through understanding and find out health troubles linked to the environmental hazards. Special attention will be accorded to the most susceptible groups in society, in particular children. (Foster, 1997, p.55)

The enhancement in European unity has been one of the most dominant changes in the previous decade. Concurrently, the EU is growing, and the business among the nations in the area is also on the rise. Some modifications, like a change from air journey of a medium distance to high-speed trains, might be advantageous; whereas others using the car more often will probably be detrimental to the environment. Though European integration is usually considered an encouraging development, it might bully the environment in a variety of forms. The aspirations of the youth in the changeover countries, to ape the standard of living and consumption standards of Western countries, with demands to improve the economy first of all and mitigate the environmental problems later, might have stern consequences. But unflinching adaptation to resource management techniques of the modern world might well end up in defeat of the traditional, more bearable approaches that continues to be prevalent in several regions of Europe.

Contamination affecting soils is still a problem in Europe in spite of several national and international measures which have been set up in the past ten years to control the contamination of soils. Widespread development of cities and towns has been done in Europe and the race for the scare land results in degeneration of land and particularly clogging of the top soil at untenable prices, for instance through progress of urban areas and the building of transport facilities. The incidence and distribution of difficulties in the soil are caused by multiplicity and particular susceptibility of soils throughout Europe, together with physical characteristics. In spite of the reality that a broad array of acts contribute and add to the exhaustion of soil resources, safeguarding of soils has not been given the same importance. Soil protection has been treated in a bit indirect manner through the initiative intended at the protection of environment.. (O' Riordan; Juger, 1996, p. 87)

There is a need for the formation of an evaluating system of the soils in Europe which is able to present dependable, analogous and expected information about the situation of soils in Europe. Several global schemes also stress the necessity to improvise soil evaluation in Europe. But the solution towards utilization of soil resources in a sustainable manner is a healthier combination of conservation of soil with the various level policies. Yet again there is excess millions of garbage disposing grounds in the European Union that could be possible instances of pollution of soil. Several such particular sites have since been located as absolutely or probably polluted. But the procedure of area examination is not over and difficulties of explaining it might prohibit a precise review. First round reviews to produce stocks of probable sites are well on their way or even finished in several regions, but detailed examination and suggestion and corrective measures are advancing in a very slow pace. Information regarding the great price of correction is very little. (Desertification/Land degradation, 2001, p.3)

Chapter-7

Conclusion

The military policy during cold war was concentrated on preparations to counteract the possible attacks from the conflicting states. The present scenario successfully avoided such disputes. The dimensions of the disputes rather changed to non-conventional forms. It has increasingly been felt that the military action alone can not avoid all the hazards of national security. This necessitated appropriate reformulation of security policies so as to cater to the new avenues of the security threats. The security modalities must be prepared for its operation in the imminent conflict scenarios rather than in the areas of no possible threats. This gives rise to another problem of prioritization between the most probable and improbable areas of disputes in response to the new security threats.

To exemplify the security organization is more vulnerable to the threats of illicit drug trading in the present scenario rather than the threats of nuclear war. The European Union seems to be aware of all these critical issues and have devised a sophisticated policy framework for assistance in resolving the issues of global importance. This includes policy of resistance through United Nations to the terrorist support and support for perpetual development. Due to the reasons of weakness of the member nations to implement the rigorous security laws the European Union was under the dilemma of devising the repressive policies towards the threats of organized criminal groups, drugs trafficking, restoration of international understating. Basing on the foundation of agreeable, universally acceptable general principles of unbiased nature, the European Union seeks establishment of a legal, disciplined world for its own operation.

Moreover, restoration of economic values, safeguarding its own big, rich, open and weak defense entity necessitates global principles ensuring discipline and smooth functioning. The European Union therefore, strives for strengthening and safeguarding the organs of United Nations, maintenance of global legal order through tools ensuring the security of mankind. The member nations are also aware of the fact that merely supporting the global efforts for maintenance of legality is not sufficient. It is necessary to keep them selves on the same direction maintaining global solidarity, creating favorable circumstances soliciting the nations to participate in dissuading the disruptive activities. Proceeding on this line the European Union has devised policies of developmental assistance to the poorer regions worldwide, policy of interference in handling the incidents of disaster to mankind across the globe having no direct relevance upon them. This perhaps elucidates the reasons behind devoting themselves in the efforts for restoration of peace and interventions in the disputed areas even without UN assistance.