Environmental policies and their implementation

Environmental Policies

Give an example of an ecosystem and use this example to describe the concepts of "input-output," "source-sink relationship," and feedback.

An ecosystem refers to separate units consisting of groups of nonliving things, plants and animals interacting with each other and the external environment. A desert can be regarded as an ecosystem and so can the rainforests. In fact, the whole earth can also be regarded as an ecosystem. For the purpose of this discussion, we will take the freshwater ecosystem as an example. Here, water enters into the system via rains, groundwater flow or surface water flow (input) and evaporation results in a loss of water from the system (output). Nutrients like carbon, nitrogen and oxygen may enter the system via many sources (including pollution). A source is an ecosystem subsystem which has more nutrients output than input whereas a sink is an ecosystem subsystem which has more nutrients input than output. Feedback refers to the pool quantity of a subsystem which influences the subsystem behavior. For instance, thermal pollution of freshwater sources by hot industrial water leads to a decrease in oxygen content which leads to destruction of aquatic fauna whose putrefaction in turn further decreases oxygen content leading to further loss of aquatic life.

2) Explain why common pool property problems are a part of environmental policy. Discuss when groundwater, air, and the oceans are common pool resources and when they are not Common pool resources are those resources which do not belong to any particular person or government. Air, ocean and groundwater are common pool resources which must be protected as part of a government's environmental policy so that these do not result in an ecosystem degradation or destruction due to negligent and irrational human behavior which may cause pollution of these resources. Individuals who are not rational/responsible and do not possess any incentives to protect the common pool resources for community use as well as use for the future generations possess the right to continue with the pollution. However, the brunt of this irresponsible behavior has to be borne not only by the entire community but the future generations as well. A part of an ocean may come within the territorial waters of a particular nation and become the property of that nation but that does not mean that it has the right to deplete or pollute these natural resources or the life contained in it. Similarly, the groundwater tapped from within the private premises of a factory may be legally exploited by the owners but from the ethical and ecological point-of-view, the owners do no have the right to deplete this natural resource.

Chapter 2

1) Describe ways in which a person having a "life-centered" environmental ethic might behave differently from someone with a "human-centered" ethic.

A person with a "human-centered" environmental ethic has an opposite stand as compared to a person with a "life-centered" environmental ethic. The behavior of a person with "human-centered" environmental ethics is mainly governed by the view that all his responsibilities and duties lie primarily towards the betterment of the human race. That does not mean that such a person does not owe any responsibility towards the environment and works for the improvement of the ecosystem and the nonhuman life contained therein only after the human benefits are realized. Therefore, such a person does not owe any moral obligation towards protecting nonhuman life and the ecosystem. However, a person with a "life-centered" environmental ethic considers himself as a part of the biotic community of the Earth and therefore has a moral obligation towards human as well as nonhuman life. Such a person protects the ecosystem and the wild animals and plants "for their sake" and not "for our sake."

"life-centered" ethical person would actively strive to prevent environmental pollution, protect endangered species from extinction, guard natural resources from degradation or depletion and maintain the integrity of the ecosystem. Such a person would try and maintain a healthy balance between all the life forms on earth and try hard for a peaceful coexistence of human beings with all forms of life. The common perception is that the "human-centered" ethics and a quest for materialistic pleasure are predominant in the western society which has led to ecological degradation. However, even the Eastern society with its inherent spirituality and respect for all forms of life has also had its own share of ecological problems.

2) How has history shaped environmental awareness and influenced environmental policy? Discuss the seven stages of the history of the environmental movement and the factors of each stage that influenced environmental policy.

The history of our nation has had a profound influence on environmental regulations and policy as well as on the environmental awareness amongst the general public. The individualism and human development in the early phases of the nation's history did not clash with the natural resource management and therefore did not figure as an important issue in those times. The vision and views of philosophers like Rousseau, Locke and Vattel had a deep impact on those who framed the constitution of the United States. These philosophers laid emphasis on the natural rights (including the right to private property, liberty, pursuit of happiness and life) and individual freedom of human beings. However, this freedom has also resulted in the freedom to use the natural resources existing on one's property in an indiscriminate way leading to environmental degradation.

The history of the environmental movement in the United States can be divided into seven, somewhat overlapping, stages. These stages are: (i) the period of dominance (17th, 18th and a significant portion of the 19th centuries) - the early part of American history was dominated by the perception that the wilderness that existed in the country constituted a hostile environment and obstructed the growth of human civilization and therefore, it had to be fought back, conquered or utilized for human consumption. Any natural resource that did not contribute directly to human welfare had no value. (ii) the early awakening (19th century) - the later part of the nineteenth century saw the beginnings of a shift in the previous attitude of the general public accompanied by a rise in the views propounded by nature writers, poets and artists like David Thoreau, R.W. Emerson and George Catlin. A turning point in the history of the environmental movement was defined in 1864 by the publishing of "Man and Nature" by George Perkins Marsh, a prominent writer of the 19th century. (iii) the early conservationist (late 19th and early 20th century) - the early conservationists/environmentalists like John Muir found prominence in this period. These conservationists not only highlighted the plight of the environment before the public and government but also took active political action for the welfare and preservation of the country's natural resources and ecosystems. Their efforts helped to establish natural parks like Yosemite, Yellowstone and several such parks. It also resulted in the establishment of the National Park Service in 1916. However, the governments of that period still retained the viewpoint of exploiting natural resources for exclusively for human benefit. Conservationists were basically of two types - those who were in favor of using natural resources in a planned way (the early conservationists) and those who supported the preservation of these natural resources in their natural state. (iv) the later conservationist (early 20th century) - a shift in the government's stand came about with President Theodore Roosevelt who was a serious supporter of natural resource conservation. The movement got a boost with the active efforts of Gifford Pinchot, the first head of the U.S. Forest Division. It was due to the efforts of Pinchot that all the forest reserves were placed under the Department of Agriculture, one of the first steps towards the protection of forests for the community and future generations. Even though Pinchot stressed on the utilitarian efforts of nature preservation which was in sharp contrast to the views of the preservationists, at least governmental involvement in the Environment Movement had started. Nature clubs like Audubon Society and Sierra Club also had significant influence on changing the attitude of the American society. (v) the reawakening (mid 20th century) - a string of events like the publishing of "Silent Spring" (Rachel Carson, 1962), the Santa Barbara oil spill (1969) and the bursting of the Cuyahoga River in Flames due to a cigarette butt (1969) focused public attention to environmental issues. These factors led to the signing of the National Environmental Policy Act (1970) as well as the observance of the first Earth Day on 22nd April, 1970, both of which were major milestones in this movement. Membership in many environmental organizations increased dramatically. (vi) the complacency phase also termed as the Little Reagan Revolution (1970s and 1980s) - this phase witnessed the environmental movement reach a plateau and slowly leading towards a drop in public concern. However, organizations like Natural Resources Defense Council were also established during this period. Many experts predicted the death of the environment movement in the seventies. The 1980s (the period when Ronald Reagan was the U.S. President) witnessed a series of government measures targeting environmental regulations. This resulted in public outrage against the anti-environmental policies of the government leading to a renewed interest in nature clubs and groups and the formation of radical groups who led strong movements to protect the environment. (vii) the post- Reagan resurgence (1990s onwards) - President Bush and President Clinton did not take the radical stance of their predecessor. However, President George W. Bush has taken many measures which have weakened the environmental movement instead of strengthening it. This includes opposing curbs on greenhouse emissions via the Kyoto Protocol, supporting oil drilling in the ANWR or Arctic National Wildlife Range, weakening clean air standards and lifting the ban on logging in forests.

3) How does economics determine the public's opinion regarding environmental issues? Discuss the values of the dominant social paradigm (DSP) that influence the public's opinion about the environment. Does our DSP limit our ability to respond appropriately to future environmental problems?

Protecting the environment involves sacrificing economic growth to a large extent since economic growth depends on environmental inputs. The forward march of the human civilization has resulted in an indiscriminate exploitation leading to depletion and pollution of natural resources. This may have given immediate economic benefits to the previous and current generations but holds a grim prospect for the coming generations. Traditionally, economists have ignored the role of environment when studying market economics. Tangible benefits like how much a certain sector is contributing to the nation's GDP is easy to measure but intangible benefits or losses due to environmental factors is difficult to assess and therefore plays a minor role in the producer or consumer's attitude when producing or buying a product.

World Bank economist has suggested that the GNP and GDP should be substituted by an Index for Sustainable Economic Welfare or ISEW which considers the depreciation of natural capital and account income distribution apart from the usual benchmarks of economic progress. The public opinion regarding the environment has been influenced by the dominant social paradigm (DSP) which refers to the set of ideals, beliefs and values which shape our thinking about individual responsibility, government and acceptable societal norms. Our DSP is governed by factors like faith in science and technology, religion, free market economics, sense of alienation from the natural environment and growth orientation commonly encountered in democracies of the Western world. Our DSP definitely limits our ability to respond suitably to future environmental problems since we are essentially slaves of the current trends. There are very few people with far-sighted vision who can transcend this barrier and think about future problems and the "prophylactic" measures that the contemporary society can take to prevent such occurrences.

Chapter 3

Write an essay either supporting or disagreeing with the following proposition: The population crisis justifies the imposition of mandatory birth control measures in developing countries that will result in zero population growth.

The world is facing an acute population problem which has led to serious consequences like food shortage, deforestation (to accommodate more human habitation, industries, agricultural land), energy needs, soil erosion and many other environment related problems. An ecosystem's carrying capacity is limited and a population can only be sustained if there is a balance between the natural renewable resources and the population that it supports. With an uncontrolled increase in population, the store of renewable resources gradually runs out threatening the very survival of a species. Therefore, concrete steps must be taken before such a dire situation occurs. These steps must be well-designed and implemented keeping a host of factors in mind. It would be simplistic to design birth control measures and force them on the population of the developing countries and hoping that things will go according to plan. Radical measures which infringe too deeply into the personal lives of the people will only result in a backlash of an unpredictable type. Countries like China have already imposed a one-child norm on its population. However, there are certain fall-outs of such mandatory impositions. It may result in female feticide by people who prefer a male-child. This would also lead to corrupt practices by medical practitioners.

Moreover, imposition of such a rule on the people of the developing nations by the intellectuals of the developed world would be an injustice. Efforts should be focused on proactive measures which include educating the public, raising their education levels (which would automatically help raise awareness about such issues and act as a "natural contraceptive") and methods of providing incentives to those who give birth to less number of children. The world's population has already witnessed a slowdown in population growth (as per a UN study) and with increasing awareness, it may gradually level out. Moreover, Nature also has ways and means of balancing the ecosystem. Of course, that does not mean we should not do anything and simply wait for Nature to take its own course. Individual governments and the developed world community have a major role to play in this area. The world must come together to address this problem through proactive efforts and not try to impose rules that may result in a backlash.

2) Discuss the advantages and limitations of the use of computer models in the study of environmental problems and explain reasons why it is difficult to predict how long it may be before a global shortage develops for any particular natural resource.

Computer models are an effective way of studying environmental problems because it is possible to simulate experiments related to the environment which cannot be usually done in a laboratory. Other advantages of using computer models is the ability to effectively integrate data from various sources and use it to study the effects of current trends on future environment, predict what the future climate may be like and study unusual weather patterns. It is also possible to study current consumption levels of natural resources and the problems that it may generate in the future. This knowledge can be a useful source of information for policy makers who can create regulations for the safety and protection of the earth's natural resources. Protection and maintenance of natural resources cannot be accomplished without massive participation from the general public and this is where the disadvantage of computer models comes in.

Isolated observations of "unusual" events like the sighting of uncommon species in unexpected areas tend to capture the public's fancy more than the scientific observations and predictions generated through computer models. There is a general lack of trust in these computer models leading to obstacles in its widespread acceptance. Scientists have found that short-term prediction of environmental problems like global shortage of natural resources is less complex than long-term predictions. Long-term predictions involve future scenarios which may include various unknown parameters giving rise to a certain level of expected uncertainty. This proves to be a major hurdle in accurate or near-accurate predictions. Moreover, the information generated by taking data from a number of sources is bound to be complicated leading to different interpretations by different experts.

3) Discuss the three important points to remember when examining risk analysis and environmental policy. Include in your discussion how political pressures affect scientific evaluations. Is the DSP a factor?

There are various significant points when examining risk analysis and environmental policy. The three most important points are: (i) risk analysis is both political as well as scientific; therefore, a clash of interests must be taken into account (ii) risk analysis draws our attention towards "acceptable levels of risk"; however, it would be worthwhile to consider shifting our attention to the alternatives to a particular risk (iii) the complicated nature of scientific modeling to predict future trends in environmental problems may be interpreted differently by different members of the scientific community leading to a confusion regarding the degree of risk posed by the level of a pollutant or chemical in the environment. Political pressures affect the environmental policies in a big way sometimes even stifling the actual scientific views. These policies may not necessarily be a true reflection of the warnings or alerts sounded by the scientific community. In fact, it has been found that the EPA has placed more worth on the public opinion rather than on scientific evidence obviously due to political pressure. Sometimes this has led to decisions which have been to the disadvantage of the environment. DSP is definitely a factor since public opinion is always swayed by the dominant social paradigm.

4) Discuss the different approaches government takes for environmental regulation. How does the role and use of market forces influence the implementation of environmental policy? What are examples of unanticipated consequences of the current U.S. environmental regulatory structure?

Government policy with regard to environmental regulation may be influenced by political factors, public attitude or market forces. Government approach in this field ranges from complete non-interference to total government control. For example, ocean pollution management is entirely unregulated. The earliest U.S. governments did not take environmental regulations seriously. In fact, the main impetus was on conquering the environment rather than on protecting it. However, the 20th century witnessed a number of regulations. The earliest approaches mainly focused on government intervention through local and state control over design and implementation of the environmental regulations. There was a shift in this approach in the 1970s when the formulation was taken over by the federal government leaving the implementation phases to the local and state governments. Absolute control over the formulation and implementation of environmental regulation has been exercised only in the field of nuclear power. With regard to common pool problems, four approaches have been attempted by the U.S. government for the purpose of environmental management. The first approach depends on self-regulation through volunteerism and self-interest and absolutely no government intervention. However, this approach is not very reliable as selfish business interests gain more prominence over environmental concerns.

The second approach is a "command and control" type of regulation where a government unit decides the risk or hazard level of certain activities or pollutants and establishes "suitable" standards and implementation measures. The third approach involves levying of monetary charges like effluent charges, taxes and other measures that would deter polluters from indiscriminately degrading the environment. The fourth approach deals with the establishment of common property rights which would involve public participation along with government intervention in cost-sharing of natural resource management, implementation and monitoring of rules. According to George Stigler's economic or "self-interest" theory of regulation, regulations for the protection of the environment are motivated by business needs and are designed and implemented solely for business benefits in an approach that safeguards the competitive environment and profits of the business.

Many government policies related to environmental regulations have resulted in unanticipated consequences. For instance, government regulations requiring "minimum fleet averages" for fuel mileage in cars led the manufacturers to build more fuel efficient and lighter cars. These lighter automobiles resulted in decreased safety and accounted for approximately 20,000 fatalities in the next ten years.

Chapter 4

1) Explain the nature of pluralism and how interest groups influence public policy in the United States. Discuss group types and resources. Also, how are policy decisions made incrementally? What are the practical and political reasons for incremental policy making? How does the incremental policy process affect environmental policy legislation?

The United States can be described as a pluralist democracy. Pluralism refers to a system where public policy is based on compromise, negotiation of several interest groups and bargaining. Negotiations by interest groups or factions to further their own interests are common to most political systems. These interest groups have a common passion or interest which binds them together either to the benefit or detriment of the community. The proponents of pluralism argue that it prevents any dominant faction to take total control over the policy matters. However, pluralism also means that the interests of those members of the ecosystem like inanimate objects or nonhuman living beings are often not represented. Moreover, it is not possible for all interest groups to be adequately represented in policy making. Interest groups can be placed in two categories - "private-economic" interest group and "public-noneconomic" interest group. The interest groups belonging to the former category strive to further their own economic interests without being concerned about the collective well-being of the entire society. Such interest groups include associations of fishers, cattle, oil producers and the like. Interest groups belonging to the "public-noneconomic" group strive to bring about changes in policy matters which would benefit the entire society by providing or maintaining clean water, air or security. These include organizations related to conservation, environment protection, defense and foreign policy.

The U.S. policy process is an incremental one. This includes (i) consideration of only a select few options from a collection of alternatives by the policy maker. A detailed analysis of all possible alternatives is not undertaken due to limitations of either time, ability, lack of consensus or information (ii) the set of alternatives taken into account and the one selected varies to a small extent or incrementally from the current policy (iii) the number of consequences evaluated for each alternative is restricted (iv) the problem under consideration is frequently redefined with alterations made in order to make the problem more controllable.

The limitations of human ability, a vast number of alternatives and their consequences and the limited nature of information make an incremental policy process an inevitable choice. Politically, incremental policy making offers less radical measures which do not deviate drastically from past policies. This also becomes inevitable considering that politics invariably involves compromise, trade-offs and bargains. This has had an undesirable effect on environmental policy making as most of the options that may actually benefit the environment and society are hardly considered.

2) Discuss the political history of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) including the administrators of the agency and how their political agendas affected the implementation of environmental policy. What were the criticisms of the Agency?

In the U.S., environmental regulations are mainly enforced by the Environmental Protection Agency or the EPA. The EPA has always had a history of toeing the political agenda. It has enjoyed the support of both the political parties at various points in its existence. For example, the EPA enforced construction limits on new pollution sources in certain areas that did not comply with the Clean Air Act. This was primarily done to shift the onus of dealing with the Clean Air Act on the Congress to cover its own failure to deal with air pollution. The first EPA administrator, William Ruckelshaus, took an aggressive stance against the polluters holding a few of them as bad examples in order to gain publicity. He was used by President Nixon to publicize the environmental efforts taking place under his governance in order to stay ahead in the political race against Edmund Muskie, the Democratic presidential nominee. During Reagan's tenure, most of the appointees to the EPA belonged to the regulated industries.

Anne Burford, the EPA administrator during Reagan administration, tried to get relief for the regulated industries. Rita Lavalle, the Superfund head under Burford, misappropriated a great deal of money meant for Superfund cleanup operations to fund political campaigns of Republican candidates. Lee Thomas, who became the administrator in 1985, was charged with being too aggressive, even more than Ruckelshaus. There was a marked increase in the number of enforcement measures during his tenure. Other administrators also had political leanings and advanced the political will of the leaders. The EPA has been charged with either being too lax or too aggressive in its dealings depending on the attitude of its administrators. EPA also ignored the interrelations that existed between various types of environmental problems. The EPA has also been charged for being uncoordinated, unsystematic and prone to taking non-uniform decisions between various regions.

Chapter 5

1) How is the greenhouse effect a classic example of the environmental policy paradox and problems associated with international common pollution problems?

The greenhouse effect is a classic example of the environmental policy paradox. The problem is that despite initiating various high-sounding Acts, most of them are mere studies on the greenhouse effect. This is in line with the "wait and watch" policy of the government which has put off taking concrete actions to stem global warming until it gets further evidence from the ongoing studies on global warming and the greenhouse effect. The Global Climate Protection Act passed by the U.S. Congress in 1987 is not a law to check global warming but only a call for research in this field. The 'United Nations Conference on Environment and Development' conducted in Rio de Janeiro in the year 1992 also did not come to any specific conclusions or take any actions to deal with climate changes or the greenhouse effect. It merely asked its 154 member countries to simply report carbon emission changes in their respective countries. Incremental decision making by the government has also led to this situation. The severe effects of global warming may not be evident until after several years but if the international committee waits for reports or further proofs of this undesirable situation, it is possible that the effects may creep in without anybody taking any action against it and it may be too late by then!

The greenhouse effect, acid rain, thinning of the ozone layer in the stratosphere and toxic air pollution are common international pollution problems. It is not possible for any country to single-handedly tackle these problems. Therefore, there is an urgent need for the international community to come together and hunt for feasible solutions to these problems.

2) Explain the various types of regulatory innovations of emission-trading schemes. What are the administrative problems associated with emission trading? What are the advantages and disadvantages of emission trading?

Several types of regulatory innovations of emission trading systems have been introduced by the EPA in order to implement the Clean Air Act. These schemes are designed so as to allow some flexibility to the polluters to stay within emission limits. This is based on the belief that polluters have a better understanding of their pollution sources and have a better chance of coming up with optimal cost-effective measures to reduce pollution. These innovative trading schemes include banking, netting, bubbles and offsets. Netting takes the sum total of pollution into consideration and allows the polluters to limit pollution in a particular aspect and increase it in another aspect. Offsets allow polluters to set up their plants in nonattainment areas. Bubbles allow a polluter to calculate the total emissions from a plant and then adjust the emission sources in such a way that the pollution level does not exceed the set limit. Banking allows the polluter to collect credits by reducing pollution and use these credits for future use. One of the main problems associated with emission trading is that it has failed to improve air quality. On the other hand, it has managed to reduce costs related to pollution control. Moreover, emissions trading require close monitoring and detailed analysis of pollution data.

Chapter 6

1) the amount of fresh water that is theoretically available for human exploitation is enough to meet the annual needs of 20 billion people. Why then is there a growing worldwide shortage of water? What is the paradox in environmental policy concerning water supply and consumption?

Theoretically, a significant amount of freshwater is available for the needs of 20 billion people but practically, a large section of human population is facing water shortage. There are various factors that give rise to this shortage. Firstly, there is a vast gap between the water consumption of humans in the developed and developing worlds. Secondly, pollution has made some of this freshwater reserve unfit for human consumption. Thirdly, a significant amount of this water goes towards industrial and agricultural use. Finally, a considerable portion of freshwater is wasted through indiscriminate use.

There is a paradox in the environmental policy related to water supply and consumption. Areas which have sufficient supply of water do not enforce water conservation and do not charge households for amount of water consumed but on the storage, transportation and treatment of water. Since water is inexpensive in these areas, people do not discover the true cost of this water and hence do not realize its true worth leading to poor water management and conservation.

2) Give a brief description of water laws and regulations. Include in your discussion how decentralization, fragmentation and implementation affect the effectiveness of these regulations.

The first regulation dealing with water pollution (improper discharge impeding harbor navigation in New York) was passed in 1886. This was followed by the Rivers and Harbor Act (1889) banning pollutants in all kinds of navigable routes. The Federal Refuse Act of 1899 banned the discharge of refuse matter in any water body. Other laws related to water pollution are the RCRA -- Resource Conservation and Recovery Act, SDWA -- Safe Drinking Water Act which monitors drinking water supplied by the public water supply units, CWA -- Clean Water Act which controls the discharge of polluting substances from a point source.

Fragmentation, decentralization and implementation have adversely affected the environmental policy with regard to water conservation and management. The federal government does have a say in water pollution control but the main responsibility for implementation of the water policies rests with the state and local governments. Even at the central level, there are more than two dozen federal agencies associated with the formulation and implementation of the water policy. This fragmentation has not advanced the cause of water conservation and management as part of the environmental policy in any sense.

3) What are the criticisms of water pollution policy? Include in your analysis human health and the role of state and local government.

The criticisms leveled at water pollution policy are technical as well as political in nature. Some of these criticisms involve the following: (i) the effect of only a fraction of hazardous chemicals have been determined so far. The SDWA has regulated only 105 chemicals out of the 66,000 pollutants discharged into the environment so far. In some cases, even dangerous chemicals like TCE or trichloroethylene are not regulated. This industrial solvent can cause both short- and long-term health hazards including cancer (ii) according to many in the state administration, too much power rested with the federal government in terms of water pollution control, management and financing. The state governments have repeatedly emphasized that they should be given sufficient funds as well as adequate responsibility when implementing new programs (iii) the timetable of the National Clean Water's program has often been termed as unrealistic (iv) it is claimed that there is serious overestimation of the environmental management capacity, and technical and institutional capabilities of the state and federal government by the U.S. Congress (v) it is alleged that EPA's Water Quality Trading Program is a "pollution trading scheme" which is bound to increase water pollution because of its lack of placing a limit on total pollution.