Light water reactor technology and nuclear energy development

Nuclear Power for Energy and Its Impact to the Environment

Louis Daleandro

History of use of nuclear energy

Production of nuclear power has a rich history of competing with various other energy-related technological sciences to rule the market. Technology of light water reactor (LWR) finally topped this struggle, which started right after the Second World War. This LWR technology is not only being used by USA at this moment but 80% of the reactors at present which are under process are also being used for the foundations of the technology which was started by USA. Ref?

People informed of emerging technologies, at one point in time knew gas graphite reactors, electricity with direct current and Stanley Steamers to be the greatest engineering technologies of all time. Ref-These technologies do not exist anymore. However, when electricity was supplied to places nearby initially from these technologies,?

, it was believed that direct current would be more beneficial because of its characteristics of being more proficient in managing the heavier and intricate processes of electricity loading. However, as the distances to supply electricity increased, the advantage was gained by alternating current. This was done because of its capability to transfer electricity at higher voltage while simultaneously using a transformer to stand-down and decrease the overall use of power., This in turn helped in decreasing the recurrence of voltage inconsistencies.

Now, after a long time direct current is being used again to transmit high voltage to vast distances. Such changes have also taken place for nuclear reactors, primarily because of the military reasons for most countries in the world. There are quite a few studies that have focused on these relevant changes of nuclear reactors that have been taking place over the past few years -For instance, studies confirm that United Kingdom and France had priorities of weapons having the capability of nuclear fission and that the driving force for the armed forces of these countries was primarily the nuclear capabilities and functions of the United States.

Perhaps the most important factor to note when talking about the changes made in nuclear reactors is the use of uranium fuel. Uranium fuel is made by uranium ore which in this case is used as raw material. United States, Australia, Nigeria, Canada, South Africa are the main countries of this resource- with reserves of between 270-2400 thousand tons in each. Various other countries have relatively low supplies of this resource, ranging between 36- 124 thousand tons in each country. Some of these countries are - India, Algeria, France, Gabon, Brazil, and Argentina. After the Cold War, some countries in the previous Soviet Bloc like Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan and Russia have also started to supply uranium in the international market.

Comparing Reactor types-

The reactors that use formerly discharged products to maintain voltage consistencies in nuclear power plant are called burn reactors while the process is called'burning'.' These burn reactors are also used to change the energy into a firmer form of an isotope, which allows these isotopes to have longer life then they would have normally. This is contrary to "breeder" reactors that are used to produce additive plutonium as opposed to consuming it. The reactors are called burners if the percentage of preliminary production of fission (breaking down of large nucleus cells into smaller parts to produce more energy simultaneously) is reduced to less than 1; if more fissile material is consumed (i.e. more than 1, than produced) they are called breeders.

This is normally referred to as the breeding or burn ratio.

Reactor technology produced by TerraPower in collaboration with Microsoft and Intellectual Ventures is called a Traveling Wave Reactor (TWR) (Fehrenbacher, 2010). TWRs do their job by strapping up the exhausted uranium and very little amounts of augmented uranium. The travelling wave reactor also has the ability to carry fission in energy that is predominantly non-fissile in nature. The energy is usually non-fissile in nature because neutrons produce energy at a very slow pace, and this energy has a very small interaction with the central part of the other isotopes, both the fissionable isotopes and the productive isotopes (Gilleland, 2010). Theoretically the TWRs could last centuries but the models which are being used now days last for around 60 years before they wear out.

TWRs can produce their own energy by a distinct area of one meter thickness. This thickness revolves around the central part of reactor and facilitates in circumventing the process of fortifying the plutonium. Furthermore, it lessens the dangers of nuclear propagation around the globe and the dangers of nuclear energy against wind, gas, oil, coal and solar energy.

Comparisons of Different types of energy sources-

Since the recent population explosion and increased deficiency of water, the usage of water has become immensely important for the consistent production of electricity as well as other uses in different industrial plants. This is why it is important to note here that U.S. Geological Survey is of the view that irrigation still uses 80% of freshwater while power produced by thermoelectricity is merely 3.3%. It is a known fact that all the heat regulated cycle plants (solar thermal, nuclear, NG, coal) need large volumes of water for condensing, as well as cooling the temperature of the boiler. Nuclear and solar plants are restricted because of deficiency of relevant burning substance and effectiveness of the source of energy respectively. Coal, on the other hand, which can burn at sky-scrapping temperatures, is more competent and requires less water for cooling (The British Wind Energy Association, 2005). Hence, the use of coal as the burning substance used in nuclear and solar plants could be the best way to not only produce the best result but also conserve the use of water.

If cycle plants are prepared on seashores then they can use seawater as a source for their electricity production and cooling requirements. This kind of place is less restricted by environmental factors like release of high temperatures. This is true because discarding high temperatures will have minimal effects on temperatures of water and no cooling towers will be needed at such sites. Furthermore, this will have no effect on the volumes of water accessible for normal use. For example there are no towers to cool at all in Nuclear power plants in countries like Japan because the position of plants is near the coast. Moreover, noteworthy water loss can be minimized by using dry system of cooling. Palo Verde Nuclear Generating Station uses a more innovative cooling system i.e. sewage cooling among other methods which can be used as a great example for many states in the U.S. (The British Wind Energy Association, 2005).

Evaporation and leaching of water in the water resource is the primary ground of water use in Hydroelectricity table. The modern techniques used nowadays to generate electricity include the production of steam by blazing fossil fuel which can be used to set in steam turbine which sequentially makes an electrical generator work (The British Wind Energy Association, 2005).

As the fossil fuels are very easily transmitted from one place to another, itpermits the increased production of electricity at the place of need. Fossil fuels present in the world today are plenty in types but limited in quantity. When fossil fuels of low price will become depleted it will have major effects on energy supply and for the producers of plastics and other things. Many educated guesses have been made to find out precisely when these sources will finish. Many new kinds of fossil fuels are being explored, even though the speed with which they are being found is inadequate and the drawing out of fuels is constantly becoming problematic (The British Wind Energy Association, 2005).

The release and discharge that is produced during the process of burning fossil fuel is grave. Heavy volumes of carbon are mixed and buried underground because of fossil fuel burning which in turn leaves the ground contaminated or unsuitable for agriculture. Furthermore, this carbon when burnt gets converted into carbon dioxide, which is then released into the environment resulting in the rise of environmental concerns. CO2 released from electrical power manufacturing yearly is up to nearly 10 billion tones (The British Wind Energy Association, 2005). Global warming and increased greenhouse effect are the main consequences of increased environmental releases of CO2. Although the fossil fuel burners strongly challenge these facts with a rebuttal of how much energy can be produced and their part in the growth of industries, but there is no doubt about the relationship that exists among global warming and raised CO2.

Of course, not all fossil fuel burnings result in the same environmental concerns. Different types of releases are produced which depend on the type of fossil fuel used and what type of technique is used to burn it. Particulate matter, Ozone, NO2, sulfur dioxide and various other gases are also released with the burning of fossil fuels. Acid rain and smog are the main consequences of the release of nitrogen and sulfur oxides. Flue gas stacks of extreme height were built by plant owners to deal with this problem so that all the hazardous gases would get attenuated in atmosphere. This can merely be helpful on local level but not at all on the global level.

Radioactive materials in low quantities are present in fossil fuels, chiefly in coal and using them in heavy amounts can have more hazardous effects on the environment causing radioactive contamination globally. This is a much more pressing concern when compared to the radioactive contamination within a nuclear power station as the noxious waste in them is properly managed and piled up.

Mercury, toxic heavy elements, arsenic and some other traces of hazardous elements are found in coal. Some elements like mercury which is released in the boiler of power plants can stay floating in the air and move around the globe's atmosphere. While the release of mercury because of various other man-made causes is well controlled in the environment, the significant stock of remaining mercury pollution is caused by the waste releases of power plants. In 2003, the release of mercury from power stations in United States was approximately 50 tons yearly and hundreds of tons yearly in China. Engineers who design these power plants can install different apparatuses to lessen these emissions.

As nuclear plants do not use fossil fuel as a regular energy source, they do not actually release CO2. Furthermore during the digging, mining, production improvement and supply of the nuclear fuels, the carbon dioxide released is less in comparison with Carbon dioxide released by burning fossil fuels producing the same energy. However, this does not mean that the Co2 released can be ignored as it can still cause environmental deterioration in the long run.

Also, heat produced by a huge power plant using nuclear energy can be dissipated in natural water which can have disastrous effects on the life in water because of immensely raised temperatures.

Discharged particles of radioactivity from within a nuclear plant are managed by a proper system. Even though these instances are rare, an atypical maneuver may end up discharging radioactive waste which could vary between being negligible to critical.

Excavating uranium ore can damage the atmosphere around the mine. Discarding used up fuel is very much debatable with various continuing storage methods being under evaluation and condemnation. Passing out fresh or used up fuel to arms manufacturers, risks nuclear proliferation. And finally, the nuclear facility itself becomes radioactive which takes many years of capital before it can be cost-effectively taken apart and put down as waste

Wind Power extracts mechanical energy from the steady course of air over the exterior of the Earth. Usually, wind power stations are placed in areas of high wind speeds, having wind farms and a large number of wind turbines. The main advertising concern for wind turbines is their older version like the Altamont Pass Wind Farm. Wind farms, such as this one, are old, small and are generally loud and compactly placed, making it a not-so attractive area to the common people. One disadvantage of these turbines is that it disturbs surrounding low-level winds. Alternatively, large turbines have diminished these issues and are now a profit earning source of energy. A large number of local people have setup such wind turbines in order to cut down on their power bills.

If established on an agricultural land, the latest kind of wind farms cause the least possible damage to the environment compared to other sources of energy. These wind farms need less space per kilowatt-hour (kWh) of electricity when compared to every other renewable source of energy, except rooftop solar power, and can be used for grazing and harvesting.

The energy used on its manufacturing can be produced within months from its operation date. During the construction, air pollution and green house gas is been discharged that is low in quantity and is diminishing. This means that its operation do not generate any pollution or emission.

The speed of modern wind turbine systems with respect to the revolution per minute is really slow, however, which affects the overall production of energy as well. There are quite a few other hindrances face by these wind systems aside from their speed; some of these hindrances include topography of the region i.e. wind turbines are only effective in certain landscapes (like plain lands with heavy wind flow) -The opposition towards wind turbines is probably on the grounds of aesthetics; however, people should re-evaluate this aspect of aesthetics and look towards the dangers associated with the suggestions of broader community and climate change.

Germany and Spain are two countries that are significantly using solar photovoltaic power as the financial motives are provided by the Government. These financial motives have also been provided by Washington State of U.S. Photovoltaic as power works best in those areas which are highly exposed to sunlight

Its working is mainly dependent on its photovoltaic cell which normally transforms the radiation of sun into DC (direct current), and this DC power is changed into the alternative current, the AC and then finally sent to the power grid. Where are the references?

Moreover, the photovoltaic power has become another source for supply and to its cleanliness, apart from the existing fossil fuels, but its production cost is high. However, it is expected that as the technology improves in future, the cost can be curtailed and brought into the domain of competitive pricing.

The photovoltaic power has a major drawback that mainly influences the environment, as the manufacturing of photovoltaic cells require silica, a material obtained from sand. As silicon is obtained from silica, its extraction is possible by using Fossil fuel only. Nevertheless, the production of CO2 has been reduced due to advanced manufacturing processes. An upfront cost is associated with the solar power, but it definitely guarantees clean and pure energy throughout the solar cell's life.

The energy which is generated by the mechanism of absorbing sunlight, through huge mirrors, after which the heat that is absorbed gets transformed into electricity in a classical turbine, is termed as Solar Thermal energy.

Pharmacokinetics

A severe injury or death may occur due to high level of releases of radioactive waste. There are various treatments for once this occurs like the use of cytotoxic for the treatment of animals with radiation or any other of the mutation-causing effects. Cytotoxic is primarily an anti-cancer drug=. Usually a 5 sievert dosage of cytotoxic is considered to be the safest level of dosage but in application it proves to be incurable for the humans and this may cause a risk and fear for humans to suffer from cancer which can be caused due to exposure to radioactive waste (Hohmeyer and Trittin, 2008 However, birth defect may be caused by the developing organism in an unborn child if it is irradiated and this deficiency may not necessarily gamete or form a gamete cell. Studies which have been conducted till now show that the prevalence of radiation-induced mutations in humans cannot be determined (Alsema et al., 2006). The threats which occurr from exposure of any given activity of a radioisotope may vary because of the decay mode. It would depend on the body responsiveness and pharmacokinetics of an element. The short-term iodine releases the water soluble beta and gamma, which quickly forms in the urine and is excreted out. Likewise, alpha emits actinides and radium and hence is considered to be dangerous because of its long biological half-lives and having high linear energy transfer value from its radiation. The radioisotope also derives the rules determining biological injury because of the differences and also because of the nature of chemical compound which may enclose the radioisotope.

Coal

Radioactive uranium, barium, thorium and potassium are included in coal with little amount. However, there is less than the average concentration of these essentials which are in the Earth's crust in pure coal. In case of shale or mudstone, or even 'dirty' coal, it might contain more than average concentration (Laumer, 2008). The ash minerals are not burned well in the fly ash if the minerals are active. Fly ash has the same radioactivity as that of the black shale but less than phosphate rocks; however, fly ash can be more dangerous in some specific kind of environment where it can be inhaled (Laumer, 2008).

Oil and Gas

The radium and its wastes comprise of the scrums from the oil and gas industry. Moreover, radium richness is prevailed by the sulfate scale from an oil well whereas radon is enclosed in the well of water, oil and gas. Solid radioisotopes are formed by the radon decays and make up a coating from the inside of the pipe work. Propane is processed in an area where oil plants are processed and it has more than one contaminated area where propane is boiled at the boiling point as that of radon (AAAS, 2011).

Spent fuel activity will dominate after some thousand years because of the prime concern that has risen in waste management because of a couple of long lasting nuclear products i.e. Tc-99 for half life 220,000 years and I-129 for half life 17 million years. In spent fuel, Np-237 for half life two million years and Pu-239 for half life 24,000 years are the two most problematic transuranic elements (Vandenbosch et al., 2007). Interaction with the biosphere can be successfully isolated if there is a structure of mature management and treatment in place. This process is usually followed by storage, removal or makeover in a non-toxic form from the waste (Ojovan, 2005). We have seen an inadequate progress towards the waste management solution for long runs although all the governments are in favor of the view of creating waste and disposal management systems (Brown, 2004).

Space Disposal

A good idea of discarding nuclear waste from the environment is space disposal. However this idea has a number of significant disadvantages, one of them being the probable disastrous failure of a launch vehicle, which is hazardous for the entire world as it would disseminate radioactive material in the whole world's atmosphere. The proposal is unfeasible for risk as well as economic reasons. This is so because a huge number of launches would be needed, as an individual rocket will be incapable to carry all the material, which is in accordance with the total amount that has to be disposed off. International agreements will be required on the regulation of such a program for avoidance of further complicated matters (Vandenbosch, 2007).

There have been a number of instances when accidents have occurred because of radioactive waste. These instances include inappropriate disposal of radioactive material when defective shielding took place during transportation; when it was stolen from a waste store or was abandoned; in the Soviet Union one waste store was blown out during a dust storm when the lake had partially dried.

Similarly, a low level waste management facility located at Maxey Flat in Kentucky collapsed in the ditch when there was heavy down pour and got filled with water. The reason of this collapse was that it was covered with dirt instead of cement or steel. The water had to be disposed off at the facility of Maxey Flat because it had become radioactive. In other incidents of radioactive incidents, the contaminated water from the lakes and ponds accidently flowed in to the rivers during heavy storms. In countries like Italy, the radioactive materials are left to flow in the rivers which makes the water contaminated for domestic use.

A number of incidents regarding disposal of radioactive materials took place in France. One of them took place at the Areva plant in Tricastin where the liquid containing untreated uranium, during an operation, overflowed from a faulty tank and radioactive material weighing 75 kg leaked in to the ground land and from there it went in the two nearby rivers. Another incident contaminated over 100 staff with low dose of radiation. Cases of radiation exposure have been caused by the search of discarded radioactive materials especially in the developing nations. This is primarily because they have very few regulations of hazardous substances and even less education about the radioactive materials and its impacts. One more reason is the market for aged goods and scrapped metal. People who buy this material, especially the scavengers, do not know that the material is radioactive and usually use the material bought because of its scrap value or its aesthetics.

In addition to the implementation of regulation regarding the radioactive waste and related controls, lack of responsibility of the owners of radioactive materials which are usually hospitals, military or university play a significant role in the radiation exposure. Transportation incidents that involve spent nuclear fuel from power plants do not experience dangerous penalties mainly because of the strength of the spent nuclear fuel shipping casks (Vandenbosch, 2007).

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