The correlation between paternal absence and sexual risk-taking in adolescent females

¶ … Absence of Paternal Involvement and Sexual Risk Taking Behavior in Adolescent Females

Influence of Father Involvement on Child Development

Infant

One-year-of-age

School-aged

Emotional Development

Social Development

Father Involvement and Female Adolescent Sexual Risk Behaviors

Measures of Father Involvement

THE CORRELATION BETWEEN the ABSENCE of PATERNAL INVOLVEMENT and SEXUAL RISK TAKING BEHAVIOR in ADOLESCENT FEMALES

The objective of this work is to conduct a literature review on the correlation between the absence of paternal involvement and sexual risk taking behaviors in adolescent females. This review will serve to inform the reader about the implications across the life course and will further make connections with regard to poverty, race, gender and will assess whether their things continue through adulthood and what role that social forces play in this topic, the cultural influence, impact on education, incarceration rates and so forth.

INTRODUCTION

The work of Brooks (2007) states the fact that adolescence "is a period characterized by a high frequency of risk behaviors, many of which have negative outcomes." Brooks states that the attitudes that adolescents have regarding sexual behaviors are likely to influence the behavior of the adolescent and determine whether the adolescent engages in risky sexual behaviors. The work of Harris Duncan and Boisjoly (2002) states that: "...adolescents possess the cognitive abilities to formulate rational behavioral intentions based on perceived attitudes about the risk and benefits associated with engaging in such behavior." (p. 1010)

PURPOSE of the STUDY

The purpose of this study is to ascertain whether father involvement positively affects sexual risk-taking behavior among adolescent females.

SIGNIFICANCE of the STUDY

The significance of this study is the knowledge that will be added to this field of study.

METHODOLOGY

The methodology of this study is qualitative in nature and is accomplished through an extensive review of the literature in this field of study.

BACKGROUND to the STUDY father may be defined as being an 'involved father' if "his relationship with his child can be described as being sensitive, warm, close, friendly, supportive, intimate, nurturing, affectionate, encouraging, comforting and accepting." (Allen & Daly, 2007) Fathers may also be classified as being involved "if their child has developed a strong, secure attachment to them." (Allen & Daly, 2007) There appears to be a traditional perspective that views father involvement in the life of a child as integral to the child's development and behavioral outcomes. The literature reviewed in this study supports this view.

LITERATURE REVIEW

I. Influences of Father Involvement on Child Development

A) Infants: More cognitively competent at six months and score higher on the Bayley Scales of Infant Development. (Pedersen, Rubinstein, & Yarrow, 1979; Pedersen, Anderson, & Kain, 1980; as cited in Allen & Daly, 2007)

B) One-year-of-age: The child continues with a higher cognitive functioning, are better problem solvers as toddlers and have higher IQ's by age three. (Hugent, 1991, Easterbrooks & Goldberg, 1984, Yogman, Kindlan, & Earls, 1995; as cited in Allen & Daly, 2007)

School-aged: Better academic achievers, more likely to get a's, have better quantitative and verbal skills, have higher grade point averages, receive superior grades, or perform a year above their expected age level on academic tests. Are more likely to live in cognitively stimulating homes. (Bing, 1963; Goldstein, 1982; Radin, 1982; Astone & McLanahan, 1991; Blanchard & Biller, 1971; Cooksey & Fondell, 1996; Feldman & Wentzel, 1990; Goldstein, 1982; Gottfried, Gottfriend & Bathurst, 1988; National Center for Education Statistics, 1997; Shinn, 1978; Snarey, 1993; Wentzel & Feldman, 1993; and William, 1997; as cited in Allen & Daly, 2007) More likely to enjoy school, have better attitudes toward school, participate in extracurricular activities, and graduate. They are less likely to fail a grade, have poor attendance or have behavior problems at school. (Aston & McLanahan, 1991; Brown & Rise, 1991; Mosely & Thompson, 1995; National Center for Education Statistics, 1997; and William, 1997; as cited in Allen & Daly, 2007)

II. Emotional Development

Children of involved fathers are stated by Allen & Daly (2007) to be "more likely to demonstrate a greater tolerance for stress and frustration, have superior problem solving and adaptive skills, be more playful, resourceful, skillful, attentive when presented with a problem, and are better able to manage their emotions and impulses in an adaptive manner." Children of involved fathers are further stated by Allen & Daly to be "more likely to demonstrate a greater internal locus of control, have a greater ability to take initiative, use self-direction and control and display less impulsivity." (2007) Allen & Daly furthermore state that young adults who have had nurturing and available father while growing up are "more likely to score high on measures of self acceptance and personal and social adjustment. " (2007) These young adults are further reported to see themselves as "dependable, trusting, practical and friends, be more likely to succeed in their work, and be mentally health. The variable that is most consistently associated with positive life outcomes is the quality of the father child relationship. Children are better off when their relationship with their father is secure, supportive, reciprocal, sensitive, close, nurturing, and warm." (Allen & Daly, 2007)

III. Social Development

Allen & Daly report that involvement of the father is "positively correlated with children's overall social competence, maturity, and capacity for relatedness with others." (2007) Children of involved fathers are furthermore stated to be "more likely to have positive peer relations and be popular and well liked. Their peer relations are typified by less negativity, less aggression, less conflict, more reciprocity, more generosity, and more positive friendship qualities." (Allen & Daly, 2007)

IV. Father Involvement and Female Adolescent Sexual Risk Behaviors

The work of Sarah Allen and Kerry Daly (2007) entitled: "The Effects of Father Involvement: An Updated Research Summary of the Evidence Inventory" presents an updated overview of key trends in the father involvement literature. In terms of cognitive development: 'Infants of highly involved fathers, as measure by amount of interaction including higher levels of play and caregiving activities, are more cognitively competent at 6 months and score higher on the Bayley Scales of Infant Development (Pedersen, Rubinstein & Yarro, 1979; Pedersen, Anderson & Kain, 1980; as cited in Allen and Daly, 2007) by the age of one year these infants "continue to have higher cognitive functioning (Nugent, 1991; as cited in Allen and Daly, 2007) and are better problem solvers by the time they are toddlers (Easterbrooks and Goldberg, 1985; as cited in Allen and Daly, 2007) the work of Matthew Bean entitled: "Understanding Fathers' Roles: An Evidence-Based Practice Guide for Family Therapists" relates that "Several studies show that increased father involvement is associated with decreased delinquency and increased moral development in children. In a recent review of literature on paternal acceptance/rejection, Rohner and Veneziano (2001) found a significant body of research showing that father love is associated negatively with aggression, substance abuse, conduct problems, and delinquency in youth." (2001) in addition: "Later research has replicated the findings of the individual studies cited in Rohner and Veneziano's extensive review of fathering literature, thereby supporting further the conclusion that positive father involvement is associated negatively with children making poor choices." (Bean, 2006) Bean further states that Pleck and Masciadrelli (2004) made a lengthy review of research on paternal involvement in U.S. fathers and state conclusions that "research which controls for mother involvement has shown a correlation between father involvement and adolescent psychological well-being and identity formation." (2006) Bean (2006) notes that research results which emphasize the negative impacts of fathers as poor sex-role models "show also the lack of father involvement to be associated with negative child outcomes. Higher rates of delinquency, early sexual intercourse, and drinking along with reduced rates of school achievement and poor levels of well-being, have been associated with diminished father involvement." (2006) Research with the new emphasis on father involvement in nurturing of children has made comparisons of fathers who are highly involved to those in families where women were the primary nurturer of the children. Research shows that the children in families where fathers were more involved in child care: "...have the same increases in psychological well being, school achievement, and so on that has been found for other dimensions of father involvement. Furthermore, research on father involvement indicates that a lack of father involvement according to the societal prescription leads to increases in delinquency and risk-taking behaviors and an overall decline in mental health and well-being." (Pleck, 2003; as cited in Bean, 2006) Bean relates the work of Hariss, Furstenberg, and Marmer (1998) who conducted a correlational analysis using data from a national survey of children to investigate the influence of fathers over children's life course. They found that children who came from families in which marital conflict and poverty were low and measures of father involvement and parents education were rated higher, were generally more likely to have positive outcomes over their life course." (Bean, 2006) These results have been replicated in other studies that controlled for similar variables and showed that father involvement "and the subsequent improvement in adolescent outcomes is correlated with measures of improved marital relationships." (Bean, 2006) Bean notes that a "dramatic decline in the influence of father involvement has been shown to be correlated with fathers' maintaining a residence other than that of their children." (2006)

According to the work entitled: "Theoretical Models of Juvenile Delinquency" developmental pathways of adolescent delinquency has been examined by researcher "through both longitudinal research and meta-analyses." (Theoretical Models of Juvenile Delinquency, nd) Resulting from these empirical investigations are "numerous insights...key indicators and predictors of behavior of those youths who engage and those who persist in delinquent behavior." (Theoretical Models of Juvenile Delinquency, nd) According to this work there have been a number of studies which had made identification of characteristic patterns of parent-child relationships that are strongly associated with juvenile delinquency." (Theoretical Models of Juvenile Delinquency, nd) the work of Juby and Farrington (2001); Patterson and Stouthamer-Loeber (1984); and Steinberg (1987) state that "evidence clearly demonstrates the influence that parent-child relationships have on youths engaging in delinquent behavior." (Theoretical Models of Juvenile Delinquency, nd) Related is the work of Shields and Clark (1995) in a study that collected data on 480 youths and their families and found that "adolescents who rated family cohesion in the mid-range between 'disconnected' and 'enmeshed' reported the lowest rates of delinquent behavior. In contrast, adolescents reporting the highest rates of delinquent acts tended to characterize their family cohesion as predominantly 'disconnected' with very little involvement among family members and a large degree of personal separateness and independence." (Theoretical Models of Juvenile Delinquency, nd) Family communication patterns are also a factor that researchers have attributed as a factor related to juvenile delinquency." (Theoretical Models of Juvenile Delinquency, nd) This work further relates that: "Sensation seeking, defined as a personality tendency to seek strong sensations and experiences that entail various forms of risk, is on notable individual factor receiving particular attention in research." (Theoretical Models of Juvenile Delinquency, nd) the work of Hansen and Breivik (2001) is related which made an examination of the relationship between sensation seeking and risk-taking behavior among 360 junior high school age students. Zuckerman's 'My Opnion II' was used to quantify the tendency of a youth toward sensation seeking youths that were engaged in positive risk behaviors such as high risk sports vs. those youths that were engaged in negative risk behaviors such as criminal activity and drug use and stated that hypothesis that "sensation seeking youths would be more likely to engage in delinquent activity when opportunities to engage in positive risk behaviors are unavailable." (Theoretical Models of Juvenile Delinquency, nd) Findings are stated to have revealed "high correlations between sensation seeking and risk behaviors with the majority of the sample endorsing more positive risk behaviors compared to negative ones." (Theoretical Models of Juvenile Delinquency, nd) the work of Furman and Shaffer (2003) relate several development tasks faced by adolescents which include:

1) Identity development;

2) the transformation of family relationships;

3) the development of close relationships with peers;

4) the development of sexuality; and 5) Scholastic achievement and career planning.

It is stated that these tasks involve the individual as well as the systems in which the individual exists including the family, peer group and school. (Brooks, 2007; paraphrased) Brooks relates the work of Bronfenbrenner "The Ecology of Human Development (1979) he identified four systems levels which are the:

1) the microsystem;

2) Mesosystem;

3) Exosystem; and the 4) Macrosystem and holds that these all interaction in a multi-directional manner. The following figure illustrates the model as proposed by Bronfenbrenner.

Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Model

Source: Brooks (2007)

The model of Bronfenbrenner (1977, 1979) is one that is not as concerned with human development as it is with the contexts in which development takes place. The implication stated by Bronfenbrenner is that development is most "influenced from the outside to the inside; that is, influence is more salient from the major culture through the exosystem and mesosystem, to the microsystem, otherwise known as the developing person." (Brooks, 2007; p. 10) Advocated by Bronfenbrenner is that in research from an ecological standpoint the 'principal main effects are likely to be interactions between systems." (Brook, 2007; p. 10) Brooks relates that: "Rodgers (1995) found that parental monitoring, parental support, parental values, fathers' psychological control, and mother's communication were significantly related to adolescent risk-taking behavior." Additionally, Herring (1985) is stated by Brooks (2007) to have found that: "...as a perception of family cohesion increased, positive increases were noted in more conservative sexual values and attitudes." (p.45) Brooks (2007) states that: "In particular, the role of a father figure seems pivotal in influencing teen girls' engagement in sexual behavior." (p. 45)

Brooks relates as well the study of Blum and Mmari (2005) "...meta-analysis of the developing country literature found that of the sixteen studies which examined the association between family structure and sexual experience among adolescents, nine found that when adolescents live with both parents, they were less likely to engage in sex than those who only lived with one parent or lived with someone other than their biological parent. Additionally two of these studies specifically measured whether the biological father was present in the home and found that among females, the presence of a father at home during childhood and adolescence was independently associated with a later sexual debut." (Blum and Mmari, 2005; as cited in Brooks, 2007) Brooks relates that Ellis and colleagues (2003) made an investigation into the affect of the absence of the father on: "early sexual activity and teenage Pregnancy in longitudinal studies (over a five-year span) in the U.S. And New Zealand. After controlling for covariates, such as externalizing behavior problems, mother's age at first birth, race, socio-economic status, parental monitoring, and more, there was stronger and more consistent evidence for effects of fathers' absence on early sexual activity and teenage pregnancy than on other behavioral problems (Ellis et al., 2000). Rodgers' (1995) dissertation adds that fathers' psychological control predicted the likelihood of sexual risk taking among adolescent females in a logistic regression. Finally, Lonning's (1993) dissertation research investigated the strength of father-daughter relationships and the impact those relationships had on the sexual activity of the daughter in nearly 200 female subjects. A significant relationship was found between father-daughter relationships and onset of consensual sexual intercourse (Lonning, 1993). In the current study, family form is included in a checklist format with other demographic items. " (Brooks, 2007; p. 47) the presence of the father further relates to another primary element in the ecological model, which is the 'socio-economic status' (SES) in that which determines the risk taking behavior of the adolescent. Brooks (2007) states: "Of interest is that risk takers, in general, are disproportionately likely to be economically disadvantaged." (Harvey and Spigner, 1995; as cited in Brooks, 2007; p. 48)

Parent's education levels are stated to have been found to be: "...related to their teenagers' behaviors." (Brooks, 2007; p. 48) Findings are stated by Koss (1985) and related by Brooks (2007) that "children whose parents had less than a 12th grade education were 5.7 times more likely to have initiated sexual intercourse and children whose parents had a high school education or equivalent were 7.0 times more likely to have initiated sexual intercourse compared to those children whose parents had a college level education." (Brooks, 2007) Parental supervision is identified in the work of Brooks (2007) to be "a significant factor in understanding the variation in initiation of sexual activity among adolescents in the United States and elsewhere. Brooks cites the work of Hansen et al. (1987); Hogan and Kitagawa, (1985) and Meschke and Silbereisen (1997) and states that "greater monitoring and less permissiveness are associated with delays in sexual debut, less frequent sexual intercourse, less risky behavior, fewer sexual partners and increased condom use among adolescents." Brooks cites Bynum (1999); Miller, Forehand and Kotchick (1999) and Romer et al. (1994, 1999) and states that permissive parental attitudes are related to early sexual debut." Brooks cites Metzler, Noell and Biglan (1994); Rose et al. (2005); and Small and Luster (1994). Brooks (2007) relates: "Rose and colleagues (2005) concluded in their study of sexual attitudes of fifth graders that early adolescent's families and caregivers play an important role in delay of early sexual activities. Parental monitoring is also emerging as a consistent factor in reducing teen pregnancy risk." The study of Crosby et al. (2001) "reported that their parents generally knew who they were with, were more likely to be consistent dual-contraceptive users." (Brooks, 2007) the work of Donenberg, Wilson, Emerson and Bryant (2002) is stated to have found that the actual monitoring of the parents may not be "as important as the adolescents perception of her parent's monitoring. As with other variables, perceptions of behavior seems to have as much an impact as the actual behavior." (Brooks, 2007; p. 53) Brooks states that Dorenberg, Wilson Emersen and Bryant (2002) further reported that: "...when parental permissiveness was perceived as high, girls, but not boys, reported increased sexual risk taking, a greater likelihood of using drugs and alcohol while having sex, and a decreased likelihood of using a condom during sex.. High levels of perceived parental supervision have been found to predict fewer infections of gonorrhea and Chlamydia in female adolescents; however, it should be noted that the same relationship did not exist between perceived parental communication and gonorrhea or Chlamydia infections." (Brooks, 2007) it is further related by Brooks that parental monitoring has been linked as well to "varying rates of teen pregnancy among different racial groups and across gender." (2007) Furthermore, Brooks relates that East (1999) 'studied Mexican-American girls and found that families with pregnant and parenting teens vs. those with 'never pregnant' teens report lower monitoring over their daughter's activities." (2007) Parental support of autonomy is stated by Brooks (2007) to have potential "long lasting and relatively immediate effects..." In that the work of Wilder and Watt (2000) states findings that "parental supervision had a substantial effect on the likelihood of early sexual experience. Specifically, they found that high levels of paternal supervision discouraged sexual activity among male adolescents, whereas high levels of maternal supervision discouraged sexual activity (including very early sex) among females." Brooks relates that studies have shown: "The father-daughter relationship has been found to be influential on the daughter's engagement in sexual activities." (2007) Brooks (2007) further states: "In the current study, father involvement in particular seems to lacking, thus having implications for the participants' engagement in sexual activities. For example, approximately 30% of participants indicated that it is "not true" that their fathers find time to talk with them, 50% indicated that it is "very true" that their fathers do not seem to think of them often, and 38% reported it to be "very true" that their fathers are not very involved with their concerns. Recommendations for further research include additional exploration of this relationship and what variables strengthen it. Encouraging fathers to assume an active role in the sexual socialization of their daughters is needed, perhaps by aiding in the dissemination of sexual information and sexual values in prevention and intervention programs." (2007)

2005 report published by the Institute for Youth Development states that in a new analyses of the largest study of adolescent behavior ever conducted to reveal that family involvement, 'connection' to adults, parental expectations and certain parental behaviors can outweigh negative factors that put youth at risk for violence and other unhealthy behaviors. Included in this report is a brief by Kathleen Mullan Harris, Ph.D. Of the Sociology Department at the University of North Carolina who reports that: "...both the degree of father involvement and certain parenting behaviors are associated with decreases in violence, substance abuse, delinquency, and sexual intercourse. Harris found that the more involved fathers are in their children's lives the less likely their children are to be involved in any of these risk behaviors. A direct correlation exists between decrease in risk behavior and increase in father involvement, regardless of family structure, she reported. Harris then explored the impact of three distinct areas of parenting behaviors: 1) monitoring, control and supervision; 2) responsiveness and involvement; and 3) democratic parenting (i.e., joint decision making regarding decisions affecting the adolescent child). Sharing family dinner the majority of days every week and democratic parenting are two of the most protective actions parents can take, she reported. For example, Harris said, "when families share all or most dinners together, substance abuse is lowest" and while "increased parental monitoring lessens the probability of sexual activity, shared dinner meals have a larger impact." Furthermore, "across all family structures, parents who practice democratic parenting (i.e., joint decision making regarding decisions affecting the adolescent child) are less likely to have children involved in delinquency." (the Institute for Youth Development, 2005)

In the report entitled: "Interconnections: Emerging Patterns in Youth Risk Behavior" stated is that "Involvement in one risk behavior increase the likelihood for involvement in other health behaviors. Sexual activity has been found to be an indicator of a larger lifestyle pattern of unhealthy risk behaviors that includes using tobacco, alcohol, and illicit drugs and being involved in violence." (Erickson, 1998) the Surgeon General's Report on tobacco use among young people: "...concluded that 'tobacco use in adolescent is largely associated with a range of health-compromising behaviors, including being involved in fights, carrying weapons, engaging in high risk sexual behavior, and using alcohol and drugs." (Erickson, 1998) the National Health for Youth Institute additionally states that: The recent Add Health study, which surveyed more than 90,000 school age adolescents, is the first study of youth to identity risk and protective factors that span across numerous unhealthy risk behaviors." (Erickson, 1998) Findings of the report state that: "Independent of race, ethnicity, family structure and poverty status, adolescents who are connected to their parents, to their families, and to their school are health than those who are not." (Erickson, 1998) the Add Health study states findings that the perception of the adolescent regarding "...parental connectedness protected that adolescent from major unhealthy risk factors, including involvement in violence, use of alcohol, cigarettes and marijuana and early sexual debut." (Erickson, 1998) the work of Erickson entitled: "Sexual Activity and Youth" published by the National Health Institute for Youth states the fact that "adolescents who initiate health-risk behaviors such as sexual intercourse and substance abuse at an early age frequently have poorer health later in life, lower educational attainment and less economic productivity than their peers. Early initiation of these behaviors is associated with longer periods of risk taking in later adolescence and early adulthood, and also may be a marker for risk-taking in adulthood." (Erickson, 1998) Erickson states that "a positive family relationship cannot be underestimated as a primary factor that protects adolescents from engaging in sexual behavior. The Add Health study found that the more connected teenagers felt to their parents and family, the less likely they were to participate in early sexual activity. Youth who perceived that their parents disapproved of adolescent sex and adolescent contraceptive use were more likely to delay sexual debut. Also, parents can positively influence the sexual behavior choices of their children by being home at key points of the day, conveying high expectations for school, and instilling in their children a sense of belonging and self-worth. Communication between parents and children is vitally important. "Clearly sexual promiscuity and high risk behavior can be reduced significantly if parents talk to their children about sex," said Paul Krouse, publisher of Who's Who Among American High School Students. Of students whose parents forbid them to have sex, most (88%) have never had sexual intercourse. In comparison, of those students who said their parents don't care if they have sex, more than half (52%) have engaged in sex. Parents who clearly communicate to their child the importance of delaying sex can help reduce the risk that their child will engage in sexual activity. Adolescents who perceive their parents' disapproving attitude towards early sex will be more likely to wait, thereby protecting against risks of STDs and pregnancy." (Erickson, 1998)