Sports Participation and Character Development

Sports Participation And Character Development sports participation CHARACTER DEVELOPMENT Opening statement Summary of the literature framing history of the project, using 5 articles related to the problem Gaps and/or deficiencies in prior research Importance of present study Why the study should be pursued For whom is it important Purpose of the statement Research design (experimental, quasi-experimental, or non-experimental) Theory tested or described Intent (describe, compare, relate) Variables (independent, dependent, controlling, intervening) Research question(s) and hypotheses Does sport build character? Can sports participation result in positive character development? Can the sport environment be modified or controlled? Null and alternative hypotheses for each research question, including how each of the variables will be operationalized F.

Nature of the study a. Design Paradigm (quantitative) Design 1. Experimental, quasi-experimental, or pre/non-experimental 2. Specific design (e.g., pre-post test control group, time-series, etc. See Campbell & Stanley 1963.) iii. Rationale for the design b. Methodology i. Population= ADOLESCENTS 1. Definition 2. Size, if known, or approximate/estimated size ii. Sampling 1. Type of sampling 2. How the sample will be drawn 3. Sample size and why chosen in relation to population size iii. Instrumentation and materials 1. Identify instrument 2. Establish reliability 3. Establish validity iv.

Data analysis plan: indicate what analytical tools will be applied to each set of data collected. c. Limitations i. Potential design and/or methodological weaknesses of the study ii. Explain how the weaknesses will be addressed iii. Threats to validity and how they will be potentially addressed in the study d. Ethical Concerns i. Describe your proposed procedure for providing informed consent and any ethical concerns you may need to address. G. Significance of the study a. Practical contributions of the study b. For whom the study is important c.

Implications for social change INTRODUCTION "Sports do not build character. They reveal it" - John Wooden (2011, ¶1). Opening Statement Many parents reportedly prefer to believe and expect coaches to support the expectation that participation in sports will teach and equip participating individuals to display positive character traits like integrity, respect, responsibility, self-control, self-discipline, and good sportsmanship. Little contemporary evidence, albeit, supports this lofty claim, leading some to challenge the long held contention that sports build character.

In the article, "Do sports build or reveal character - an exploratory study at one service academy," Joseph Doty and Angela Lumpkin (2010) argue: "Rather, there is evidence that sports do not build character. " (Review of Literature Section ¶ 8). During the paper focusing on sports participation and character development, the researcher develops and depicts an understanding about the relationships between research questions and hypotheses, research design, and statistical tests; primarily considering the design and methodology of the quantitative research proposed.

Background of the study People look for leaders to reveal positive character traits in their personal and professional lives. They also look for character strengths in their work colleagues as well as in their children, siblings, brothers and sisters, and friends. In the report, "Building strengths of character: Keys to positive youth development: Character strengths are foundations of positive youth development and thriving. ., " Nansook Park (2009) stresses: "Character matters. Good character is central to individual and societal well-being.

Good character is not simply the absence of deficits, problems, and pathology, but rather a well-developed family of positive traits" (¶ 1). Simply stating that a person does or does not have good character; however, does not lead to meaningful points. Character evidently mattered to John Wooden, formerly one of basketball's most successful coaches (U.C.L.A.), who earned the nickname the Wizard of Westwood. Throughout his life, Wooden carried a message that reveals his understanding of character.

His father had handwritten the following on piece of paper: "Be true to yourself. Make each day a masterpiece. Help others. Drink deeply from good books, especially the Bible. Make friendship a fine art. Build a shelter against a rainy day. Pray for guidance, count and give thanks for your blessings every day." (Litsky & Branch, 2010, p.

1) When young and playing for U.C.L.A., Marques Johnson said he did not appreciate Wooden's character or the life lessons his coach tried to pass on to him and the other players. "I didn't want to hear anything about principles and living a life of integrity at that time. But as you get older, and. have kids, and you try to pass on life lessons, now it becomes a great learning tool" (Litsky & Branch, 2010, p. 3).

As the quote introducing the paper notes, Wooden argued that sports reveal the individual's character; they do not build it. As a coach, Wooden tried to build the character of the young men who played on his team. Character, reportedly a universal phenomenon, depicts a trait of individuals with the conviction as well as the courage to live by moral virtues. Unethical behavior depicts the antithesis of character which embodies a person doing what is right.

During the journal article, "Teachers as Role Models Teaching Character and Moral Virtues: Teachers Are Role Models-But What Are They Modeling?," Angela Lumpkin (2008), Professor in the Department of Health, Sport, and Exercise Sciences; University of Kansas, explains that a person with character, also known as integrity, possesses "the wisdom to know right from wrong; is honest, trustworthy, fair, respectful, and responsible; admits and learns from mistakes; and commits to living according to these principles" (¶ 4).

Lumpkin asserts it expedient that teachers serve as role models who also teach character and moral virtues; that as teachers teach students how to reason morally, the practice simultaneously helps teachers better model the way for students to live a life of character founded on ethical qualities. Previous research regarding the development of character in physical education has demonstrated:. [T]he organized physical activity context is ripe for positive moral growth. Furthermore, evidence indicates that unless character development is directly addressed, the moral maturation process will not likely occur.

Therefore, the physical educator has the responsibility and opportunity to create situations that will enhance the character development of children in their care. (Solomon, cited in Lumpkin, 2008, ¶ 13) Character development and competitive sports experiences comprise critical components of students' lives, particularly at the service academies. Consequently, coaches need to educate players about as well as reinforce their moral values and ethical behaviors. Doty and Lumpkin (2010) also recommend that: "Sport administrators and service academy leaders should hold coaches accountable for the behavior of athletes.

Perhaps[,] language can be added to a coach's contract to address athletes' behaviors" (Doty & Lumpkin, Conclusion Section, ¶ 5). Team members can benefit from the coach using teachable moments in sports. When one athlete displays unsportsmanlike behavior, for example, the coach can discuss, explain, model, and reinforce the meaning of respect and integrity and behaviors that leaders of character possess and exhibit.

Neglecting to emphasize and encourage the development and display of ethical behaviors in a sport setting will continue to contribute to current concerns relating to the development of the sport player's character. Not developing character of young people through sports, as in any other opportunities for youth, will, in turn, negate and/or hinder values that future citizens need to contribute to and become a part of a productive and nurturing society. At the start of the 21st century, researchers advocated for two distinct forms of character traits.

In the study, Which character should sport develop?, Andy Rudd (2005) explains: Many coaches, sport administrators and parents "define character with values such as teamwork, loyalty, self-sacrifice, and perseverance, which may be considered 'social character'. Sport scholars, on the other hand, tend to define moral character with values such as honesty, fairness, responsibility, respect, and compassion" (Conclusion Section, ¶1). These traits lead the one who possesses them to diverse sport experiences.

Some overlap exists; however, consequently confusion and disagreement cloud the understanding regarding what specifically formulates desirable traits or character in sport. Rudd explains the differences between the two "camps" regarding character: The first camp consists of coaches, administrators, and players who may typically define character with social values such as teamwork, loyalty, self-sacrifice, and perseverance.

This could be designated as "social character." The second camp consists of sport scholars, and people of earlier generations still alive, who typically define character with moral values such as honesty, fairness, responsibility, compassion, and respect. This is commonly referred to by many of them as "moral character." The existence of these two camps, each with their respective definitions of character, suggests that there is confusion and disagreement concerning the definition of character in sport.

(Rudd, 2005, Introduction Section, ¶ 5) Some, albeit, may vacillate between the two camps regarding character and accept an overlapping, perhaps contradictory set of values to describe the term "character." As the research addresses the crisis that currently exists in the realm of encouraging ongoing character development in youth participating in sports, of whether adolescents develop positive character within a controlled or modified environment, the researcher vacillates between the two camps regarding character and considers the overlapping connotation of the word.

In the article, "Justplay: A revolutionary approach to youth sport administration and sportsmanship," Elaine Raakman (2006) asserts that although the potential exists for youth sport participation to build positive character traits, when society diverts its emphasis away from sportsmanship to focusing more on outcome, children as well as communities may experience negative benefits. Raakman relates the following: The original goals of the first community-organized youth sport programs (Pop Warner Football in 1929 and Little League in 1938) revolved around the development of good citizenship and good sportsmanship.

The founders of these programs were actually reiterating principles made famous by the father of the modern Olympics, Baron de Coubertin, who asserted that participation in sport could help develop engaged, balanced citizens. (Raakman, 2006, ¶ 3) A sports team, Raakman (2006) explains, simply constitutes another version of a community. The same principles apply to a sports team as prove applicable to any communal undertaking, whether a that undertaking depicts a "community garden, a neighborhood watch, or racing around France: If you want something, first you have to give it.

You have to invest in it" (Lance Armstrong cited in Raakman, ¶ 5). Armstrong, an accomplished professional athlete in the past, stresses that for individuals to attain success as a team, they must first adopt a community mindset. Citizens have citizenship. Citizenship, "based on the origin of the word, implies that one is a 'servant of the community'" (Raakman, ¶ 6). Citizens or members of a successful team have to serve their community (team) and invest in their community (team).

Each team member needs to recognize that he constitutes a small component of a bigger entity (member of a team; citizen of a community). The 2006 Citizenship through Sports Alliance report indicates that youth sports no longer focus on the child/youth. Instead, they suffer from the actions of over-invested parents; and too often focus on early sports specialization.

According to Angela Lumpkin (2008) in the report, "Teaching values through youth and adolescent sports," this recent analysis coupled with "the inappropriate actions of coaches and parents should sound an alarm that youth and adolescent sports are at risk of causing more harm than good" (Issues of Concern Section, ¶ 1). To effectively address the significant negative and unhealthy characteristics complicating youth and adolescent sports, teaching character and sportsmanship through sports needs to be re-emphasized. Matthew L. Davidson and Kelli E.

Moran-Miller (2005) contend that a person cannot necessarily be "taught" character; that he or she will more likely catch it or "pick it up" from individuals around them who live as good examples. In the study, "Character development in sport: An ethnographic study of character development in an elite prep-school basketball program," Davidson and Moran-Miller, previously on staff at the Mendelson Center for Sport, Character & Culture at the University of Notre Dame, stress that sports comprise a particularly prominent role in the culture of American education.

The massive number of individuals participating in some sort of sport, the revenues sport generates, and the continual coverage media devotes to sport confirm its significance. In fact, in most of the world's cultures, athletics claim a great influence. In the study, "Talented male athletes: Exemplary character or questionable characters?," P. Brian Greenwood, and Michael A.

Kanters (2009) recount the ongoing debate: Does sports participation builds or reveal character? The study of sport participation as a mechanism for positive development of youth and adolescents has centered upon the age-old debate over whether sport builds or reveals character. Research of sport in a developmental context indicates support for not only enhanced physical and mental health and psychological adjustment, but also academic achievement, emotional regulation, and positive occupational outcomes.

Additional research, albeit, contradicts this contention and link numerous associated costs of sport participation may link to aggressive and violent tendencies, increased alcohol use, negative peer and adult interaction or pressure, decreased moral reasoning, and problem behavior. Parents and coaches as well as adults who work with youth and adolescent sports have the responsibility to teach character, a critical component not only in sport and life, to young athletes. Lumpkin (2008) asserts that adults working in youth sports also need to reinforce moral reasoning to young sportspersons.

"Moral reasoning is the systematic process of evaluating personal values and developing a consistent and impartial set of moral principles by which to live" (Lumpkin, Strategies for Teaching Character. ., Section, ¶ 1). Methods coaches and parents may utilize to teach character and moral values to youth in sports include but are not limited to the following: Develop athletes' sports skills - Teach and emphasize learning fundamental skills before helping athletes develop more advanced skills and game strategies.

Develop physical fitness - Teach how to properly develop and maintain cardio-respiratory conditioning, muscular strength, endurance, and flexibility. Emphasize teamwork - Emphasize that when all athletes work together and contribute their best, the team will be successful, regardless of the final score. Teach dedication and self-discipline - Stress that learning and improving sports skills, developing and maintaining fitness, and contributing to the team occur when athletes work hard and put forth their best efforts.

Build athletes' self-confidence - Give positive reinforcement when athletes display progress in developing their sports skills, play by the rules, contribute to the team, or demonstrate values-based behaviors. Develop athletes' character - Teach values and ethical conduct such as respect, responsibility, and sportsmanship by explaining, demonstrating, modeling, and reinforcing these and related values. Nurture friendships among athletes - Make sports enjoyable experiences that are enriched because they are shared with teammates. Keep winning in perspective - Reward athletes' efforts and improvement rather than the outcome of any competition.

Enhancing the Sport Experiences of Youth. (Lumpkin, 2008, Enhancing the Sport Experiences. ., Section, ¶ 1-10). An abundance of cliches exist in the sport world like: "Sport builds character." Individuals with a developmental perspective, albeit, realize that positive effects of sport participation do not automatically emerge. In the report, "2007 C.H. McCloy lecture: 'Field of Dreams:' Sport as a context for youth development," Maureen R. Weiss, (2008) asserts that "Instead, [character].

must be nurtured through carefully designed curricula and teaching strategies and evaluated in terms of whether and how these factors effect change in moral functioning" (Character Development, Section, ¶ 1). Character or moral development highlights the potential for sport to utilize teachable moments that occur naturally to help youth adopt positive values. Those values include, but are not limited to teamwork, esteem, responsibility, and sportsmanship.

Character or moral development can also help youth better abstain from physical and/or relational aggression as well as help them resist the temptation to abuse substances. Although sportsmanship is recognized to reflect character, the meaning of the word, as the meaning of the word, character, may not be consistently, clearly defined. In the journal article, "Promoting sportsmanship in youth sports: Perspectives from sport psychology; sport psychology provides crucial insights for improving behavior in sport," Jay D. Goldstein, a doctoral student, and Seppo E.

Iso-Ahola (2006), Professor, Department of Kinesiology at the University of Maryland, stress the need for sporting environments to nurture sportsmanship. Goldstein and Iso-Ahola cite the National Collegiate Athletic Association to explain that sportsmanship depicts a "set of behaviors to be exhibited by athletes, coaches, officials, administrators and fans (parents) in athletic competition. These behaviors are based on such fundamental values as respect, fairness, civility, honesty, and responsibility" (¶ 3). They contend that adopting the following practices will create a more positive environment for youth sports: Philosophy.

Require athletes, coaches, officials, parents, and administrators to adhere to such fundamental values as respect, fairness, civility, honesty, and responsibility. Measurable Standards. Require strict adherence to written policies and procedures related to sportsmanship and ethical conduct, and continually and aggressively communicate the policies and procedures to the participants, coaches, officials, parents, and administrators. Education. Provide sporting and ethical-conduct education to participants, coaches, officials, parents, and administrators. Evaluation. Undertake systematic and rigorous monitoring and evaluation of the effectiveness of sporting and ethical-conduct education efforts.

(Goldstein & Iso Ahola, 2006, Recommendation Section, ¶ 2-5) In sport psychology, the term, "moral development in sport" portrays the focus for research investigating primary concepts of ethics, morality, and sportsmanship. Basically, this sphere of research attempts to answer the longstanding question: "Does sport build character or characters?" (Broun, cited in Goldstein & Iso-Ahola, 2006, Moral Development in Sport Section, ¶ 1).

Various programs may seek to fulfill diverse goals for moral education; however, the majority includes educating youth about moral principles and independent decision making in a way that entails increasingly higher moral reasoning and contributes to character strengths. The research relating to sports participation and character development indicates that a crisis currently exists in the realm of encouraging ongoing character development in youth participating in sports.

One gap the researcher notes in the literature relates to the consideration of whether positive character may be developed when adolescents participate in sports within a controlled or modified environment. Six years ago, Davidson and Moran-Miller (2005) argued that although the then current programs and literature contributed to enhancing the understanding of character development in sport, the studies proved deficient in at least the following three significant ways. 1. Typically, the programs and literature were written for a youth-sport audience. 2.

They usually made general recommendations, not suggestions specifically aimed to explicit developmental and competitive contexts. 3. The dearth of research within the then relatively new field which frequently relied on theory and research not specifically focused on sport context limited the programs and literatures (Davidson & Moran-Miller, 2005). The current study, contrary to the studies Davidson and Moran-Miller (2005) relate, addresses the adult audience; particularly coaches and educators. It also makes specific recommendations regarding positive character development of adolescents participating in sports within a controlled or modified environment; specifically focusing on sport context.

Importance of Present Study In addition to helping detour youth from undesirable life outcomes, positive character development serves as significant indicator and a strong foundation for healthy and positive life-long growth. "Growing evidence shows that certain strengths of character - for example, hope, kindness, social intelligence, self-control, and perspective-can buffer against the negative effects of stress and trauma, preventing or mitigating disorders in their wake" (Park, 2009, ¶ 1). Character strengths contribute to desirable outcomes like school success, altruism, the valuing of diversity, kindness, leadership, tolerance, and one's ability to delay gratification.

Moreover, they also relate to a reduction in problems like alcohol and substance use, teenage pregnancy, smoking, depression, suicidal ideation, and violence. The current study focusing on character strengths and whether adolescents participating in sports within a controlled or modified environment develop positive character proves significant as character development contributes to helping youth make more positive choices not only in their current stages of development but also helps them more capably transition into developing into positive, balanced, engaged, concerned citizens.

Coaches and educators will particularly benefit from the study; however, it may prove most important for youth participating in sports. Hopefully, coaches and educators will consider and implement lessons they "take away" from the research; passing positive practices on to their team. Problem Statement Sports events routinely reveal episodes of cheating, unsportsmanlike conduct, and other unethical behaviors contrary to those positive behaviors reflecting character. The negative behaviors; however, do not only occur at the professional or collegiate levels.

Negative, unethical and unsportsmanlike behaviors currently also saturate youth and adolescent sports (Raakman, 2006). Figure 1 portrays a number of considerations for the current study regarding the problem the researcher investigates relating to character development in sport. Figure 1: Problem Statement Considerations. Purpose of the Statement The non-experimental descriptive study describes positive character development of adolescents who participate in sports within a controlled or modified environment. Observational learning (or modeling) theory, also known as social learning theory, serves to inform the study.

Weiss (2007) cites Yogi Berra to have once stated: "You can see a lot just by looking" (Observational learning Section, ¶1). As researchers regularly implement observational learning "in social psychology of sport and physical activity" (Weiss, Ibid.), the researcher asserts this theory which Albert Bandura developed proves compatible with and compliments the researcher's quest to determine whether positive character may be developed when adolescents participate in sports within a controlled or modified environment.

The current study also draws from the theory of reasoned action (TRA) which proposes that the following two factors influence human behavior: 1. Attitudes towards the behavior 2. The influence of social environment and general subjective norms on the behavior. (Influence theories, N.d. Theory of Reasoned Action Section, ¶ 1). TRA asserts that individuals develop attitudes toward behavior and understand social norms through learning. Social learning includes the following assumptions: Behavior dynamically influences the environment and personal constructs. Likewise, the environment and personal characteristics affect each other and the person's behavior.

For a person to perform a particular behavior s/he needs to know what the behavior is and know that he/she has the skills to do the behavior. Individuals learn what to expect through their own experience and through their social groups. Individuals act in their self-interest to get likely outcomes they value. Individuals learn through imitating the behavior of others around them. Individuals learn through reinforcements and rewards they receive from their behavior. (Ibid., ¶ 2).

Study Variables The study includes the following variables: Independent Dependent Controlling Intervening Sport, the study's independent variable, depicts the variable the researcher manipulates (Mayhew, 2004). Positive character development of the participants depicts the study's dependent variable. The controlled or modified environment comprises the controlling variable, as these variables, which the researcher also controls or manipulates, produce an effect on the relationship between sport and character development. The researcher keeps these variables constant, eliminates them, or neutralizes them.

The intervening variables, those variables which may affect the relationship between the independent and the dependent variables, albeit, cannot be directly observed, include ***? (Independent variable, 2001; Variables, N.d.). Nature of the Study The survey/correlational research nature of the study affords the researcher the opportunity to examine a large number of responses from study participants who report their involvement in sports and its potential contribution to positive character development.

Paradigm (Quantitative) After formulating the study's research questions, the researcher determined to conduct a quantitative study to investigate character development through sports participation. To collect the data for the study, the researcher developed an open-ended questionnaire. The research design of the current study includes "a problem statement, a research hypothesis, selection and definition of variables, implementation of design and procedures, findings, and conclusions" (Wolverton, 2009, ¶ 1). 1. Experimental, quasi-experimental, or pre/non-experimental 2. Specific design (e.g., pre-post test control group, time-series, etc. See Campbell & Stanley 1963.) iii.

Rationale for the design Methodology The methodology for the quantitative study involved the researcher developing an outline or template of the research design to broadly follow. For the current study, the researcher choose the quantitative method for the research design. In preparing for the study effort; following through with implementing the initial plan to conduct a literature review to support the study's research questions will ultimately contribute to confirming or disproving the validity of the hypothesis.

The researcher's plans for the study included determining the study population which consists of adolescents. The methodology also required that researcher obtain and/or develop the questionnaire the participants complete. In some instances, the researcher had to secure permission from the participant's parents for the adolescents to participate in the study. After the researcher implements the study, the researcher then analyzes the data obtained from the survey.

For the final phase of the study, the researcher draws conclusions relating to the data the participants provide conjoined with information from the literature review. During this segment of the study, the researcher also propagates the research findings. Definition The population for the study includes approximately 250 student-athletes, ages 14-18 (9th-12th grades). Sampling The researcher confronted two challenges regarding the sampling, the method the researcher implemented to choose subjects/participants for the study. One was to avoid sampling bias; ensuring the sample proved representative of the population.

The second quandary, to avoid sampling error, was to ensure the size proved adequate enough to adequately inform about the population as well as to make right conclusions from the data the researcher obtains. The researcher overcame this concern by choosing a number of participants that totaled more than just an adequate number of participants. The researcher reached a "ball park" number for the study's sample by following directives Marcella Hart (2007) presents in the article, "Sampling": by counting the number of variables and multiplying that number by 20 or 30.

As the current study includes three contributing variables, the study would need minimum of 60 to 90 participants. Therefore, the researcher's participant population of 250 proves more than adequate; even if some questionnaires would have to be disqualified for some reason. Of the two broad categories of sampling techniques, probability, in which the researcher selects subjects in a random way, and non-probability, which depicts any non-random methods, the researcher utilized simple random sampling, a basic, commonly understood method of probability sampling.

Initially, the researcher obtained a sampling frame, the complete list of the members of the population, adolescents ages 14 -- 18. The researcher then selected the sample, using the combined random methods of cluster sampling and systematic sampling. Utilizing specialized computer software for this method, formed large groupings (clusters) and then choose a number of sub-samples of smaller units from the designated clusters. For cluster sampling, the researcher obtained a list of junior and high schools in nearby regions and then randomly drew a selection of schools from each region.

The researcher further narrowed down the potential sample by obtaining the names of adolescents regularly participating in sport at these schools to serve as the study's sample. To conduct systematic sampling, the researcher determined the sample frame and then elected to choose every fifth name from the list of adolescents in nearby school districts who participated in sport. ii.

Instrumentation and materials Instrument To conduct the survey collecting data relating to whether adolescents participating in sports within a controlled or modified environment may develop positive character, the researcher selects a sample of respondents from *** and administers a standardized ? questionnaire to them. The questionnaire will be completed by the adolescents being surveyed in a written format. This survey makes it possible for the researcher to collect data from a medium sized population, which the researcher refers to as the universe of a study. (Palmquist, 2011, ¶ 1) 2. Establish reliability 3.

Establish validity Data Analysis Plan Univariate analysis of variance (ANOVA) depicts the primary analytical tool the researcher plan to use to analyze data retrieved from the survey questionnaire (constructed with closed ended questions). "ANOVA is a statistical technique to determine, on the basis of one dependent measure, where samples come from populations with equal means" (Detmar, Gefen, & Boudreau, 2004, Glossary). The researcher will use SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences) to perform the analysis of the data the researcher retrieves from the survey.

After the researcher obtains the information from the SPSS analysis, the researcher will: Research Questions The research questions for the current study investigating character development in sports participation include the following: 1. Does sport build character? 2. Can sports participation result in positive character development? 3. Can the sport environment be modified or controlled? Hypothesis and Null Hypothesis The hypothesis for the current study asserts: When adolescents participate in sports within a controlled or modified environment, then positive character may be developed.

The null hypothesis for the current study contends: When adolescents do not participate in sports within a controlled or modified environment, then positive character may not be developed. To develop and test the study's hypothesis, the researcher expects the outcome to confirm the validity of the study's hypothesis. Statistical Test To determine the statistical test, the researcher will use for the study, the researcher considered the following, Table 1: (Customer will need to complete this section) Table 1: Considerations for Statistical Tests (What statistical analysis. ., 2011).

Number of Dependent Variables Nature of Independent Variables Nature of Dependent Variable(s) Test(s) 1 0 IVs (1 population) interval & normal one-sample t-test ordinal or interval one-sample median categorical (2 categories) binomial test categorical Chi-square goodness-of-fit 1 IV with 2 levels (independent groups) interval & normal 2 independent sample t-test ordinal or interval Wilcoxon-Mann Whitney test categorical Chi- square test Fisher's exact test 1 IV with 2 or more levels (independent groups) interval & normal one-way ANOVA ordinal or interval Kruskal Wallis categorical Chi- square test 1 IV with 2 levels (dependent/matched groups) interval & normal paired t-test ordinal or interval Wilcoxon signed ranks test categorical McNemar 1 IV with 2 or more levels (dependent/matched groups) interval & normal one-way repeated measures ANOVA ordinal or interval Friedman test categorical repeated measures logistic regression The researcher considered the nature of the study's dependent variable, "whether it is an interval variable, ordinal or categorical variable, and whether.