Adolescents' awareness and implementation of information security and online privacy regulations

¶ … ADOLESCENT'S AWARENESS and THEIR LACK of IMPLEMENTING INFORMATION SECURITY and ONLINE PRIVACY REGULATIONS of (82525) 83436

AN ANALYTICAL ASSESSMENT of ADOLESCENT'S AWARENESS and THEIR LACK of IMPLEMENTING INFORMATION SECURITY and ONLINE PRIVACY REGULATIONS

The report entitled: "Children and Interactive Media: Research Compendium Update" relates: Since the 2000 report, both large- and small-scale studies have been published on children's in-home use of interactive media." (Wartella, Lee and Caplovitz, 2002) it is noted that when compared to the 1997-1998 Census statistics, recent studies "indicate greater media saturation in the home. The most recent national survey, involving 1,235 parents of 2 to 17-year-olds and 416 eight to sixteen-year-old was conducted by the Annenberg Public Policy Center. According to the 'Media in the Home 2000' survey, American children live in a media-rich environment. In homes with children ages 2-17, 70% owned a computer, 68% owned video games, and 52% had online access. For non-interactive media, 98% of households had at least one television, 97% owned a VCR, 78% had a subscription to basic cable and 31% to premium cable, and 42% subscribed to a daily newspaper. For the first time, online access surpassed newspaper subscriptions. Interactive media had begun to permeate many children's bedrooms: Among 8- to 16-year-olds, 20% had a computer in their bedroom, of which 54% had internet access." (Wartella, Lee and Caplovitz, 2002) Wartella, Lee and Caplovitz (2002) report that the Pew Research Center in 2000 "conducted large scale studies of American's Internet use. According to the Pew Internet and American Life Project (N = 754; Lernhart, Rainie, Lewis, 2001), 45% of teens ages 12 to 17 -- which projects to 17 million American youth -- used the internet. Of online activities that these teens have done, sending and receiving email was most frequently reported, followed by Websurfing for fun, visiting entertainment sites, and sending instant messages. Relatively few teens reported having ever looked for health-related information, creating a Web page, and looking for information on a topic that was difficult to talk about. For most teens in this study, the place where they were most likely to use the internet was the home. Three-quarters of teens reported going online at least a couple of times a week, and frequency of use increased with both experience with the internet and with age. Instant messaging (IM) was a popular online activity, with 74% of the sample reporting such use, compared to 44% of adults. Almost 70% of teens used instant messaging at least a couple of times a week, and 45% of online teens reported using IM every time they went online. An important appeal of IM is the ability to stay in touch with friends and relatives who live far away." (Wartella, Lee and Caplovitz, 2002) Adolescents spent most of their time online the Internet, playing video games and generally using the computer." (Wartella, Lee and Caplovitz, 2002) Wartella, Lee and Caplovitz (2002) state that almost "three-quarters of American teens aged 12-17 go online..." Wartella, Lee and Caplovitz (2002) state that "Interactive media are rapidly converging and presenting children with new potentials for learning. In this age of media convergence, platforms are likely to be less important than the activities performed in influencing cognition." It is related: "Drawing from theories of media socialization, we emphasized that learning is social and is grounded in specific socio-cultural situations. Learning is thus founded on interaction. Drawing from both Vygotskian and Piagetian theories, the concepts germane to this notion are: (a) situated knowledge; (b)features of computer software as scaffolding for learning; - inquiry; (d) dialogue; and (e) framing. (Wartella, Lee and Caplovitz, 2002) Wartella, Lee and Caplovitz (2002) relate while there have been few studies focused on the concept of Vygotsky's Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) "as an approach to designing educational software. The ZPD is the difference between the child's actual level of development and the higher level of potential development that is possible under the guidance of a more competent adult or peer. Interaction and cooperation with others in their environment triggers learning processes in children that would not otherwise develop." (Wartella, Lee and Caplovitz, 2002) Wartella, Lee and Caplovitz additionally relate that the manner in which the child frames "their experiences with computer technologies arises out of the interplay among the child's intentions, goals, and the affordances of the equipment. Computers come to be incorporated into an already established social space in the home, and this social context affects children's engagement with new technologies..." (2002) Children use media "within a social realm according to Wartella, Lee and Caplovitz (2002).It is further related that in relation to interactive e-technologies and their influence on the adolescents identity formation the "initial findings from the HomeNet study seemed to suggest that the introduction of the Internet led children to become socially isolated, depressed and lonely. but, in looking closely at the HomeNet data, McKenna and Bargh (2000) contend that after two years of being on the Internet, children's local social network declined, but their distant social network actually increased over the same two-year period." (Wartella, Lee and Caplovitz, 2002) a follow-up analyses states that "children experienced a decline in depression from the initial findings, and that loneliness was no longer associated with the Internet, as it was when the Internet was novel to them." (Wartella, Lee and Caplovitz, 2002) it is therefore "reasonable to hypothesize that the Internet may serve different functions for different people." (Wartella, Lee and Caplovitz, 2002) in terms of identity formation: "some critics would contend that because the Internet as well as other high-tech boys, such as interactive dolls and pets, are very specific in the ways in which they guide children's behavior, the exploration of personal identity and alternate roles are diminished and children's imaginations are limited. Others would argue that children, and adolescents in particular, use interactive media to try out different aspects of themselves in both helpful and unhelpful ways." (Wartella, Lee and Caplovitz, 2002) Research over the past decade has illustrated that "children and adolescents talk about their lives via the Internet, they are interest in creating 'cool' images of their characters and they also identify with certain characters in interactive games." (Wartella, Lee and Caplovitz, 2002) Children are able to use the Internet and accompanying interactions to "express who they are or who they want to become." (Wartella, Lee and Caplovitz, 2002) Wartella, Lee and Caplovitz state that studies have linked enactment of violence by adolescents to video games and in 2000 correlational studies state findings that a link exists between aggressive behavior and violent game-play." (Wartella, Lee and Caplovitz, 2002) Self-esteem is further related to video game interactions and it is stated by Wartella, Lee and Caplovitz that in a sample of "364 fourth and fifth graders by using the Harter Self-Perception Profile that measures scholastic and athletic competence, social acceptance, physical appearance, behavioral conduct, and global self-worth. Boys and girls who preferred violent games had a lower self-evaluation of their own behavior than those who did not like such games." (2002) Wartella, Lee and Caplovitz relate that on the: "...first anniversary of the COPPA, the FTC evaluated 144 sites targeted at children under 13 to evaluate their compliance with the ACT (Federal Trade Commission, 2002) the FTC notes the types of personal information the sites collected, the activities offered, whether there was an indication that the site had parental consent mechanisms in place, whether the sites provided links to their privacy policy from the home page and from at least one information collection point, and evaluated the content of the privacy policy itself. Of the 144 sites, 72% collected personal information from children, the most common of which were the child's email address and name, and another person's email address. The FTC staff concluded that most of the sites that collected personal information (84% of sites) appeared to have done so to obtain consent or would otherwise fit under one of the Act's exceptions (e.g., using information for limited purposes and deleting the information). Most websites (89%) that collected information posted privacy policies; 82% linked to the policy from the home page, and 76% did so on at least one page where personal information was collected. Of the sites surveyed, only 47% of those that collected information had parental consent or notification mechanisms; another 18% collected information that could fall under one of the exceptions and would not necessitate parental consent. The remainder (35% of sites) collected too much information to fall under any exceptions/" (2002) in relation to the content of the privacy policy the FTC states findings that "most sites complied with rules on the disclosure of the types of information they collected and how that information could be used. Compliance with the disclosure of parental rights, however, was poor-only 52% of sites made the appropriate disclosures. Thus while the websites observed COPPA rules on providing a privacy policy and disclosing how the information collected would be used, other COPPA provisions - particularly those related to parental consent-were followed less faithfully." (Wartella, Lee and Caplovitz, 2002) Related as well is a study conducted by the Center for Media Education (CME), which was a similar evaluation "of the success of COPPA. Studying a sample of 153 top commercial Web sites directed at children under 13, the CME found that COPPA has spurred changes in Web sites' data collection practices. Web sites had limited the amount and type of information (e.g., name, postal address, phone number, age) collected from children, and there was a three-fold increase in the posting of privacy policy information explaining sites' data collection practices. A few sites found innovative solutions (e.g., anonymous registration) that allowed children to interact with site content without revealing personal information. Overall, however, the Center found that many sites were not doing their best to comply with the provisions: Most (66%) did not place links to privacy policies in "clear and prominent" places, and only some sites (38%) obtained parental consent in accordance with key provisions. Further, researchers pointed out that in trying to discourage children under 13 from entering personal information, some sites might inadvertently encourage children to falsify their ages." (Wartella, Lee and Caplovitz, 2002)

The work of Carlsson (2006) entitled: "Regulation, Awareness, Empowerment: Young People and Harmful Media Content in the Digital Age" relates that "Modern information technology has transformed the media landscape and the media culture dramatically over the past decade, offering a steadily swelling flow of material through many new channels." While media, digital and information divides still exist there are increasingly more individuals with access "to an enormous array of knowledge and diversions of many kinds - on television, on the Internet, and in mobile telephones. Many parents, teachers and policy-makers are concerned about the negative influence they believe media exert on children and young people." (Carlsson, 2006; p.1) Without today's media and information technology globalization would not have been possible. Carlsson states that: "Access to a variety of media, telephony and online services are increasingly recognized as vital factors for political, economic and cultural development." (2006) Carlsson further states: "Communications satellites, digitalization and advances in online services- especially the Internet - have mean an enormous expansion of the global market for media products such as television programs, films, news, computer games, and advertising. The categories information, entertainment and advertising are no longer clear-cut; neither are the bounds between hardware and software, and between product and distribution. In the midst of the global development of communication and media are children and youth." (Carlsson, 2006; p. 11) the traditional mass media society and an interactive media society have grown up together with young people around the world...already opted into it. These technological changes have made truly global flows of information possible, while they have also opened up transnational markets for global media companies." (p.11) Carlsson relates that both media production and distribution of products "is heavily concentrated with respect to both ownership and content." (2006; p.12) Carlsson notes that a "knowledge divide has been the topic of considerable attention and effort. It is not only a question of gaps between the north and south; the divide is reproduced within virtually every country and often reflects other gaps - those between income groups, ethnic groups and the sexes. A significant generational gap is involved. The younger generation today have a command of new media technologies that far surpasses the knowledge and skills the rest of us have managed to develop." (2006; p.12) Carlsson points out the very important fact that "Interactive media like the Internet also imply invitations to risky behavior in real life in connection with media use. Safety risks are much the same wherever we are: at school, at home, or at the cafe - or on the Internet." (2006; p.12) it has been long discussed as to what methods will "limit and prohibit the spread of harmful media content in relation to young people..." (Carlsson, 2006; p.12) Carlsson states: "Underlying this concept is the presumption that children are more impressionable, less critical and therefore more vulnerable than adults inasmuch as they have little experience and thus poorly developed frames of reference to guide their judgment. Therefore, it lies in the public interest to protect children from things like harmful media content until they have become more experienced and more mature." (2006; p.12) Raising the level of public understanding and awareness of media is required in the initiative toward protection of young people from harm resulting from interactive media. This understanding and awareness must extend to children and youth, parents and other adults in the environment of the children and to political decision-makers as well as media professionals. (Carlsson, 2006; paraphrased)

The work of Beebe, Asche, Harrison and Quinlan (2004) entitled; "Heightened Vulnerability and Increased-Risk Taking Among Adolescent Chat Room Users: Results from a Statewide School Survey" published in the Journal of Adolescent Health states that research was conducted for the purpose of profiling adolescent Internet chat room users "in terms of demographic characteristics, psychological and environmental factors, and behavioral risk factors." (Beebe, Asche, Harrison and Quinlan, 2004) the methodology in this study was of the nature that a study sample was "drawn from respondents to an anonymous statewide survey of 50,168 9th-grade public school students and included 40,376 students who reported Internet access at home and 19,511 who accessed chat rooms. Data were collected by the Minnesota Student Survey (MSS), a survey that has been administered triennially by the state's education department to public school students in grades 6, 9, and 12 since 1989. The MSS includes more than 117 questions (300 variables) addressing attitudinal, behavioral, and environmental issues. Data analysis consisted of comparing the odds of a particular characteristic or behavior for chat room users with that of nonusers. Analyses were run separately for boys and girls. The homogeneity of odd ratios was tested with the Breslow-Day statistic using SPSS for Windows." (Beebe, Asche, Harrison and Quinlan, 2004) Results of the study state: "For boys and girls, use of Internet chat rooms was associated with psychological distress, a difficult living environment, and a higher likelihood of risky behaviors. Although most chat room users did not report serious problems, this group included a disproportionate number of troubled individuals" (Beebe, Asche, Harrison and Quinlan, 2004) Conclusions of this study state: "Because chat room use serves as an indicator of heightened vulnerability and risk-taking, parents and others need to be aware of potential dangers posed by online contact between strangers and youth. " (Beebe, Asche, Harrison and Quinlan, 2004)

The work of Berson, and Berson entitled: "Challenging Online Behaviors of Youth Findings From a Comparative Analysis of Young People in the United States and New Zealand" published in the Social Science Computer Review states that: "Child-serving professionals have struggled to understand the often complex emotional and behavioral responses of children and youth who are immersed in interconnected environments and consumed by digital technologies. A comparative analysis on challenging online behaviors of adolescent girls in the United States and New Zealand was completed. Survey results confirm that when online, a significant number of adolescent girls are engaging in risky activities including disclosing personal information, sending personal photos to online acquaintances, and arranging face-to-face meetings. Many respondents continue potentially problematic offline practices as a result of these online interactions. The data also suggest that there is a lapse in preventative intervention to create and maintain awareness and safety for young people..." indicating that preparing youth in use of the Internet would be useful for online privacy and protection." (2005) Dangers of online privacy and security for adolescents is also noted in the work of Bay-Cheng (2001) entitled: "SexEd.com: Values and norms in Web-based sexuality education" states that "the sexual values and norms transmitted to adolescents through school-based sexuality education programs have been noted and critiqued by an interdisciplinary pool of researchers. With the increasing availability of the Internet to many American adolescents, the opportunities it provides for discreet and independent exploration, and the virtual lack of regulation of information provided by web sites, the Internet is emerging as a unique and critical site of sexuality education." (2001)

I. WHAT IS ONLINE PRIVACY?

The work of Louge (2006) entitled: 'Adolescents and the Internet" Established only a few decades ago, the Internet is a system of enormous technical and social complexity. It comprises a gigantic but almost invisible universe that includes thousands of networks, millions of computers, and billions of users across the world. Computer access and use among adolescents and other age brackets have grown exponentially over the past decade. More than 80% of American youth, ages 12 to 17, use the Internet, and nearly half log on daily. Although little research has been conducted on the effects of the Internet on various aspects of human development, the role of computers and the Internet as a means for socialization, education, information access, entertainment, shopping, and communication is increasing dramatically. Many adolescents reportedly prefer being online to other media, including the telephone, TV, and radio. Given that so many adolescents are spending so much time on the Internet, it is essential to be aware of its impact on adolescent behavior, well-being, and development." Louge relates that it is critically necessary to "view the Internet as a new social environment in which universal adolescent issue pertaining to identity formation, sexuality, and self-worth are explored in a virtual world." (Subrahmanyam et al., as cited by Louge, 2006; p.5) in terms of its social context the Internet "enables multiple communication functions, such as email, instant messaging, chat and globs, allow adolescents to participate and co-construct their own environments." (Louge, 2006) Louge relates the 'Pew and Internet and American Life Project' states the following:

1) Teen using email: 89%

2) Teens using instant messaging (IM): 75%

3) Possess more than one email address or screen name: 50% plus Louge relates that the Internet is clearly "transforming the social world of adolescents by influencing how they communicate, establish and maintain relationships, and find social support. Therefore, it is essential to gain awareness of both the potential benefits and risks of teen Internet use, and provide strategies to guide safe and positive practice." (2006; p.5) Louge points out that the Internet "as a complex medium of communication...provides the possibility of small intimate social environments geared towards faster or instant communication. At the same time the networks can be very largo offering global access to its users." (2006; p.2) Teens are enabled to connect with youth all across the world, which "propels the development of youth leadership, communication, socialization, information, and learning to an international scale." (2006; p.2) it has been shown in research that American youth use the Internet as a "powerful resource for information about socially sensitive topics such as sex and interpersonal relations." (Suzuki and Calzo, 2004; p.3) the Internet serves as a "community building tool providing information on civic engagement and political participation." (Rainie and Horrigan, 2005; as cited in Louge, 2006; p. 2) the Internet provides youth with the "opportunity to exercise leadership skills and become stakeholders in communities that they themselves have created. This encourages autonomy and identity construction free of the norms and expectations." (Louge, 2006; p.2) Louge relates that: "Despite fear of stalkers and inappropriate sites, parents are beginning to recognize the Internet as a powerful tool for both networking, and academic enhancement for their children. A recent study found that low-income youth who consistently used the Internet exhibited higher grade point averages over the course of time than less frequent users." (Jackson et al., 2006; as cited in Louge, 2006; p.2) Louge states that evidence arising from research suggests that "Internet communication may be especially advantageous for shy, socially anxious, or marginalized youth, enabling them to practice social skills without the risks associated with face-to-face interactions." (2006; p.3) the Internet provides a "freedom from social pressures" that enables adolescents in building "more confidence in real social situations and can elicit a sense of connection to others, an important aspect in adolescent social development." (Louge, 2006; p. 2) the Internet is stated to have "consistent positive impacts on modern society" while at the same time creating concerns surrounding "privacy, security, pornography, Internet crime, and virtual community." (Greenfield and Yan, 2006; as cited in Louge, 2006; p.2)

The Internet is stated to have become "a highly effective and profitable means of distributing sexually explicit material, as well as a sophisticated channel for compulsive sexual behavior, sex trafficking and sex crimes. According to a survey performed by the London School of Economics (2002) 90% of children between ages 8 and 16 have viewed pornography on the Internet. In most cases, the sex sites were accessed unintentionally when a child, often in the process of doing homework, used an innocuous word to search for information or pictures. Such free access and exposure to this information by adolescents who have not yet developed a full maturity could pose negative impacts on adolescent's development and could potentially manifest in their social interactions with peers, their sexual activity and their emotional development." (Subrhmanyam et al., 2006; as cited in Louge, 2006; p.3) Another potential danger exists in the fact that "Analysis of chat conversations suggests that chat participants often resort to the age/sex/location chat code to share identity information." (Louge, 2006; p.3) Louge reports a nationwide poll that states findings that "half of teens ages 13-18 often communicate through the Internet with someone they have not met in person; one-third have talked about potentially meeting someone face-to-face whom they have only met through the Internet." (2006; p.3) Other findings include:

12.5% - discovered that someone they were communicating with online was an adult pretending to be much younger;

54% - of girls reported that they could be online without their parent's knowledge and have been involved in some sort of cyber relationship. (Louge, 2006; p.3)

Louge relates that "creating fake identities deters from 'real life' social situations as it allows for individuals to create any image of themselves with little or no social repercussions. Thus, although the Internet may serve as a catalyst for communication and may increase social competence of socially anxious teens, it may also encourage fake identities and a false image of real life situations. These socially anxious teens may have a tendency to resort to computer communication as a substitute for real life interactions. (Subrahmanyam et al., 2006; as cited in Louge, 2006; p.3)

III. ADOLESCENT INTERNET SOCIALIZATION REPORTS and STATISTICS

The work of Biocca (2000) entitled: "New Media Technology and Youth: Trends in the Evolution of New Media" published in the Journal of Adolescent Health states: "An information environment is emerging from the simultaneous, rapid, and interconnected evolution of transmission systems, interfaces, and content quantity, quality, and structure. It will be easy to underestimate the collective impact of the sum of these changes on how young people communicate and absorb information. Ultimately, it will be more important to understand how these technologies will facilitate, amplify, or alter the cognitive processes and/or social behavior of the Internet generation." Analyzed in this work are the impact of the following trends on the use of media and cognition among those youth:

Information expansion and overload: Accessible networked information will continue to grow at a rapid pace for at least the next 10-20 years.

Rapid increase in interface diffusion: The number of access points into the Internet is expanding in number, variety, and mobility.

Evolution toward more embodied computing: Interfaces are evolving to use more of the sensorimotor system to transfer information to and from the user.

The evolution of more intelligent sensors to interpret use behavior and intentions.

Evolution toward anthropomorphic agent techniques: Computers are evolving to use more social and interpersonal communication techniques to interact with the user. (Biocca, 2000)

The work of Borzekowski and Rickert (2001a) entitled: "Adolescents, the Internet and Health Issues of Access and Content" published in the Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology states: "As the Internet grows in popularity and importance, many have raised concerns over access and content, especially with regard to young people and health information." The work of Borzekowski and Rickert (2001a) begins by discussing the access issues for the Internet and presently data form a preliminary survey on two "distinct samples of New York City adolescents (N=319)" Findings of this study state: "...that adolescents of dissimilar socioeconomic and ethnic groups access and use the Internet, with a large percentage seeking health information." (Brozekowski and Rickert, 2001a) Conclusions stated for this study include: "...recommendations for future health Web sites targeting adolescents." (Brozekowski and Rickert, 2001a)

The work of Boyer, Shannon and Hibberd (2005) entitled; "The Internet and Psychoactive Substance Use Among Innovative Drug Users" published ion the Pediatrics Journal states: "The Internet contains an extraordinary amount of information on the recreational use of psychoactive substances. We investigated the effect of the Internet on the drug-use knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors of adolescents." This study was conducted through a cross-sectional survey of adolescents being managed for substance abuse" (Boyer, Shannon and Hibberd, 2005) the study results state: "Of 12 patients (9 male, 3 female) who had used the Internet to learn about psychoactive substances, 100% reported that Internet-based information had affected the ways in which they had used psychoactive substances. Of the 12 respondents, 8 described adopting behaviors intended to minimize the risks associated with psychoactive substance use. Respondents also reported changes in the use of a wide variety of illicit substances as well as over-the-counter and prescription pharmaceuticals. Examiners assessed whether quotations demonstrated that respondents' knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors toward psychoactive substance use were affected by Internet information. Despite the subjective nature of the research question, there was a highly significant agreement between coders." (Boyer, Shannon and Hibberd, 2005) the study states conclusions of: "Web-based data on psychoactive substances seem to influence a broad range of drug-use behaviors in adolescents. Information on the ways that the Internet is being used by this vulnerable population should be considered in the design of Web sites to prevent the initiation and use of psychoactive substances." (Boyer, Shannon and Hibberd, 2005)

The work of Brown (2002) entitled: "Mass Media Influences on Sexuality" published in the Journal of Sex Research states: "The mainstream mass media (television, magazines, movies, music, and the Internet) provide increasingly frequent portrayals of sexuality. We still know relatively little about how this content is used and how it affects sexual beliefs and behaviors. The few available studies suggest that the media do have an impact because the media keep sexual behavior on public and personal agendas, media portrayals reinforce a relatively, consistent set of sexual and relationship norms, and the media rarely depict sexually responsible models. More longitudinal research, especially, with early adolescents is needed to learn more about how media content is attended to, interpreted, and incorporated into developing sexual lives." (Brown, 2002)

The work of Cabrera (2002) entitled: "The Digital Self: Psycho-social and Cultural Impact of internet in Young People from a Developing Country" states that: "In young people cultures, the information and communication technologies have found, from their beginnings, the best niche of growth and appropriation. Internet, a place where young people have entered with much sensitivity and competition, is for many something that is becoming a structure of social relation. It is a symbolic place (in a semiotic and psycho-social sense) in which different types of experiences that build what we can call the DIGITAL SELF coexist. Through it young people give a new meaning to their identities and social interactions." Cabrera reports an ethnographical research with young people (16 years old average from 20 public schools) in a discussion of some of the most significant psycho-social transformations appearing in identity processes and in the cultural appropriation of Internet in schools of popular sectors in Colombia, a developing country where the social conditions of poverty and inequality in the technological access are predominant factors." (Cabrera, 2002)

The work of Calvart (2003) entitled: "Gender Differences in Preadolescent Children's Online Interactions: Symbolic Modes of Self-Presentation and Self-Expression" published in the Journal of Applied Development Psychology states: "Preadolescent children who did not know one another interacted in a multiuser domain (MUD), an online site designed to facilitate identity exploration and peer interaction. Each child participated in two separate sessions, one with a same-sex and one with an opposite-sex peer. Children created characters that reflected real-life properties of themselves, such as gender and interests in popular culture. Boys in same-sex pairs interacted with one another through action, rapid changes, and playful exchanges. Girls in same-sex pairs interacted primarily through written dialogue. In mixed pairs, boys wrote more and engaged in less playful exchanges, and girls wrote fewer and increased their actions. The results suggest that boys and girls have their own unique play styles with same-sex peers, but will moderate those patterns during late childhood to communicate with peers of the opposite sex." (Calvert, 2003)

The work of Cameron, Salazar and Burgess-Whitman, et al. (2004) entitled: "Adolescent's Experience with Sex on the Web: Results from Online Focus Groups" presented at the meeting of the 'Moving Forward, Looking Back', National Communication Association states: "Both Congress and experts on youth and media indicate that effects of sexualized media on children and adolescent viewers should be an important research priority, yet little research has been conducted. Thus, to discover adolescent Internet users' experiences with, exposure to, and perceptions of sexually oriented websites (SOW) and sexually explicit websites (SEW), four web-based stratified focus groups with males and females aged 14 to 17 (N = 40) were conducted. Participants reported high levels of exposure to SEW and SOW. Exposure to SOW was a result of searches for sexual health or relationship related information, opening incoming e-mail with a benign subject line, and following links with misleading address names or URLs, often embedded in e-mails. Exposure to SEW was intentional for some and unsolicited for others. Females found SEW to be socially distasteful and noted concerns that such images objectified women. Male participants had divergent views: some avoided SEW, while others were willing consumers. In general, participants believed that their exposure to online sexual images and information had no influence on them, and reported that their parents have no knowledge about what they see on the Internet." Cameron, Salazar and Burgess-Whitman, et al. (2004) additionally relate that continued research is necessary in exploring the "effects of exposure to SEW and to SOW and the factors that might mediate exposure and effects. Parents, teachers, physicians and other healthcare experts should become more aware of the easy access to such material on the web and seek ways to reduce the potentially harmful effects of exposure. " (Cameron, Salazar and Burgess-Whitman, et al., 2004)

The work of Cheon and Cho entitled: "Children's Exposure to Negative Internet Content: Effects of Family Context" published in the Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media (2005) relate a study that was conducted due to concern about inappropriate Internet content in relation to possibly jeopardizing children's safety and health and state that: "Findings from the 178 participating families who completed the survey demonstrate that children are more exposed to negative Internet content than what most parents expect. Patents' perceived control, obtained through shared Web activities and family cohesion, was determined to actually reduce children's exposure to negative Internet content." (Cheon and Cho, 2005) Cheon and Cho further state: "Despite the potential negative effects on children using the Internet, more than 30% of surveyed parents had not discussed the downside of Internet use with their children (Internet Advisory Board, 2001), and 62% of parents of teenagers did not realize that their children had visited inappropriate Web sites. Recognizing the ever-serious negative aspects of children using the Internet and parents' possible underestimation of, or ignorance about, their children's Internet usage and its effects, this study explores the degree of children's exposure to negative Internet content and detects the possible discrepancy between what parents think their children are doing online and their children's actual activities. In doing so, this study carefully dissects the possible causes and consequences of perceived parental control over children's Internet usage. Concerned that inappropriate Internet content may jeopardize the health or safety of children, the present study is a crucial attempt that aims to address the following research inquires with regard to children's Internet usage: (a) to understand the degree to which children are exposed to negative Internet content, (b) to detect a possible discrepancy between parents' perception and children's actual exposure to negative Internet content, - to examine various antecedents explaining perceived parental control over children's Internet usage, and (d) to suggest various ways to decrease children's exposure to negative Internet content." (2005) Cheon and Cho relate the "increasing concern from educators, psychologists, and parents about the negative effects of using the Internet on the physical (e.g., information fatigue syndrome), cognitive (e.g., inability to discriminate between the real and cyber world), and social development (e.g., identity confusion) of children among which, detriment to social development (hurting children's skills and patience to conduct necessary social relations in the real world) is a paramount problem One of the most serious concerns regarding children's social development involves the proliferation and easy accessibility of negative content on the Internet, such as pornography, violence, hate speech, gambling, sexual solicitation, and so forth it is easy to see how these types of negative content harm children and destroy their development. Extant literature shows that children's exposure to inappropriate media content yields many negative outcomes such as increased aggression, fear, desensitization, poor school performance, prevalence of symptoms of psychological trauma, antisocial behavior, negative self-perception, low self-esteem, lack of reality, identity confusion, and more." (2005) Sexually explicit materials may "desensitize children to deviant sexual stimuli and encourage them to enact antisocial aggressive sexual behaviors. Furthermore, the anonymity of the Internet makes it easier for pedophiles to approach children through online chatting. Children who spend hours in chat rooms looking for friends or just passing time can be easily targeted and abused by unknown adult sexual offenders. Violent online games are another serious concern. It is known that violent computer games increase children's physical, verbal, relational, and antisocial aggressions. These negative effects of violent games on children are even more serious regarding the Internet because access to such violent games has become easier for unsupervised children due to free or fee-based online games. Online gambling has also been cited as a serious Internet problem affecting children. It can seriously disrupt children's social and psychological development, for example, addiction, being unable to repay debts, missing school, and so forth." (2005) There is stated to be "little...known" about the affect of exposure of children and adolescents to inappropriate content on the Internet. Cheon and Cho state: "Extant literature shows that a discrepancy exists between the reports of parents and children on children's media usage; for example, parents tend to underestimate time spent on television viewing and the amount of violence to which children are exposed (This discrepancy leads parents to underrate the impact of media messages on their children and to not exert much control over their children's media use. Surprisingly, 38% of surveyed children ages 8 to 18 said that their parents do not enforce any rules on watching television, 95% of older children watch television without their parents, and 81% of children ages 2 to 7 watch television unsupervised. This may be true for children's Internet usage, but we know little about the possible discrepancy between parental estimates and children's actual Internet usage. In this vein, the present study tries to detect the degree to which children are exposed to these sources of negative content and whether parents overestimate or underestimate their children's exposure to such content. In doing so, this study strives to examine how children's exposure to such negative Internet content relates to the social context of Internet usage, that is, the role of family communication and relationship on children's exposure to such content." (2005)

Cheon and Cho report a study conducted which examines the use of the Internet by children within the family setting. Stated is: "A new medium, like the Internet, usually requires a technical basis, namely 'possession of knowledge or skill without which actual behavioral enactment is difficult or impossible.' This technical skill and knowledge enhances a user's perceived control over the medium. Skill, a Web user's "capacity for action during the online navigation process," has been known to influence the Internet user's online experience or "flow' -- "an optimal, intrinsically enjoyable cognitive state experienced during online navigation" it is believed that greater knowledge about, and skill at using, the Internet leads to greater perceived control during the Internet interaction." (2005)

The work entitled: "Theme Section: Adolescents of the Information Age: Patterns of Information Seeking and Use, and Implications for Information Professionals" states that the focus on understanding "the key dimension of human information behavior has emerged over the past 25 years. Simply defined, human information behavior is the study of the interactions between people, the various forms of data, information, knowledge, and wisdom that fall under the rubric of information, and the diverse contexts in which they interact." (Todd, 2003) Ross states that "the central dilemma of studying human information behavior is concisely expressed by Baran and Davis (1995) a dilemma of an information-intense society that focuses on understanding how people and information come together and how information professionals respond." (2003) One stream of research has as its focus the "characteristics of children and adolescents' information seeking behavior in electronic environments." (Todd, 2003) Since the decade of the 1990's a "substantial number of research studies have been published that focus on young people's use of the World Wide Web. Studies of children's use of search engines and Websites shown that although young people enjoy searching for information on the Web and are motivated to use it as a communication and information tool, they exhibit interaction patterns that suggest a number of barriers to effective information seeking and use." (Todd, 2003) Reported is the emergence of a consistent them from these studies which is "the need to develop learners' information and critical literacies: developing the intellectual scaffolds to appropriately engage with this information to successfully access, interrogate, and critique the information to meet their learning needs and desired knowledge outcomes; to question and challenge the ambiguous world of ideas made available through the Web; Theme Section: Adolescents of the Information Age: Patterns of Information Seeking and Use, and Implications for Information Professionals" (Todd, 2003)

The work of Jochen, Valkenburg, and Schouten (2005) entitled: "Developing a Model of Adolescent Friendship Formation on the Internet" states that: "Previous research has been largely silent about what precisely influences online friendship formation and has ignored motives for online communication as potential explanations." These authors state that research on the social consequences of the Internet has recently begun to focus on the influence of introversion/extroversion on online friendship formation." It has been posited by scholars that extroverted individuals are more likely to form friendships online. The work of Mazalin and Moore (2004) entitled: "Internet Use, Identity Development and Social Anxiety Among Young Adults" relates that "contradictory evidence exists regarding the benefit of the Internet for social and personal well-being, with some studies indicating deleterious effects and others possible social enrichment. The potential for increased social isolation from 'overinvolvement' in online activities or, conversely, the Internet's possibilities for enhancing social relationships, may be particularly salient during young adulthood and adolescence because of the special importance of the peer group during this developmental phase. This study was an investigation of the relationships between the levels of identity development, Internet use and social anxiety among a sample of 161 older adolescents/young adults aged between 18 and 25. Results indicated that, for males only, higher levels of social anxiety and less mature identity statuses were associated with more frequent Internet use, specifically time spent in chatrooms, online browsing for personal use, and games. For females (who were in this sample less socially anxious, more identity-developed, and lower users of the Internet than males), social anxiety and identity status were not significantly associated with time spent online. Discussion centered around the potential roles of Internet use in reinforcing already-existing social anxiety or, alternatively, in supporting and maintaining social contacts in those with lower levels of social deficit."

The work of Wolak, Mitchell and Finkelhor (2007) entitled: "Unwanted and Wanted Exposure to Online Pornography in a National Sample of Young Internet Users" published in the Pediatrics Journal relates a "survey of Internet users aged 10-17" which states findings that: "42% had seen pornography online during the previous year, and 66% of those exposures were unwanted." Wolak, Mitchell and Finkelhor further report the 2005 Youth Internet Safety Survey which was conducted through phone interviews with 1,422 youth for the purpose of measuring exposure to online pornography during the previous year and the characteristics of those most at risk of being exposed." (2007) Stated is that: "Online pornography was defined as pictures on a website or as a downloaded image of naked people or people having sex. Youth were divided into three groups: those with wanted exposure (they wanted to see the image); unwanted exposure (they did not want to see the image); and those with both types of exposures. Youth were also asked about how they used the Internet. The only type of Internet use related to unwanted exposure was the use of file-sharing programs to download images. More than half of all boys 14-15 years old and two-thirds of 16- to 17-year-olds had some exposure to online pornography. As boys aged, they were more likely to want exposure than not. Among girls, wanted exposure increased slightly with age but unwanted exposure strongly increased. Depressed youth were slightly more likely to be exposed to wanted and unwanted pornography. Filtering, blocking, or monitoring software and law enforcement presentations reduced unwanted exposure to online pornography." (Wolak, Mitchell and Finkelhor, 2007) the work of Young, Young and Fullwood (2007) entitled: "Adolescent Online Victimization" published in the Prevention Researcher Journal relates: "As Internet use becomes more common, the number of youth exposed to online sexual solicitation, sexual material, and harassment (sexual or bullying) has increased. In a review of three recent studies, the authors estimated national prevalence of online victimization of youth at 13% for sexual solicitation; 34% for exposure to unwanted sexual material; and 9% for any type of harassment. The majority of incidents was not distressing and was not reported to adults. Risk factors for online victimization included older age (youth 14-17 were at higher risk than younger children) and gender (girls were more likely to experience sexual solicitation or harassment than boys). In one study, 60% of youth gave out personal information in an online questionnaire or form. About 45% gave that information to someone they had met online. Possible prevention strategies include frank discussion by adults about Internet victimization so that youth are better equipped to avoid it and deal with it if it happens. The authors recommended making youth aware of the possible consequences of sharing personal information online. Adults can also prepare youth to take action if they are victimized: removing themselves from the situation; changing screen name; and reporting the incident to prevent others from being victimized." (Young, Young and Fullwood, 2007) While the Internet obviously is a useful tool and this is true in many aspects of use of the Internet, simultaneously adolescents are being exposed to subject matter online that they are not mature enough to process.

IV. SAFETY RULES for ADOLESCENTS ONLINE

The Website 'SafeKids.Com' states the following safety rules for children and adolescents who are online: (1) I will not give out personal information such as my address, telephone number, parents' work address/telephone number, or the name and location of my school without my parents' permission; (2) I will tell my parents right away if I come across any information that makes me feel uncomfortable; (3) I will never agree to get together with someone I "meet" online without first checking with my parents. If my parents agree to the meeting, I will be sure that it is in a public place and bring my mother or father along; (4) I will never send a person my picture or anything else without first checking with my parents; (5) I will not respond to any messages that are mean or in any way make me feel uncomfortable. It is not my fault if I get a message like that. If I do, I will tell my parents right away so that they can contact the service provider; (6) I will talk with my parents so that we can set up rules for going online. We will decide upon the time of day that I can be online, the length of time I can be online and appropriate areas for me to visit. I will not access other areas or break these rules without their permission; (7) I will not give out my Internet password to anyone (even my best friends) other than my parents; (8) I will check with my parents before downloading or installing software or doing anything that could possibly hurt our computer or jeopardize my family's privacy; (9) I will be a good online citizen and not do anything that hurts other people or is against the law; and (10) I will help my parents understand how to have fun and learn things online and teach them things about the Internet, computers and other technology." (SafeKids.com, 2007)

V. IMPORTANCE of BEHAVIORAL MODIFICATION for ONLINE SAFETY

Behavioral Modification therapies have been used successfully for treating many behavioral problems in adolescent individuals. It is extremely important that behavioral modification be utilized for making adolescents aware and providing knowledge to adolescents concerning online safety and privacy issues in order that these adolescents do not become exposed to subject matter that is too mature for them to process and resulting in some type of lifetime sustaining psychosocial or developmental damage. Behavioral modification has been used and reported in the work of Leonard and Fries (2004) entitled: "Helping Parents Reduce Children's Television Viewing" published in the Journal of Research on Social Work Practice reports the use of behavior modification used by parents regarding the amount of time children spend watching television. The study states that: "those youngsters who watch an excessive amount of television have little time for developing other interests and hobbies." (Leonard and Fries, 2004) This study reports use of a "simple electronic principles and behavior modification..." which involved dispensing tokens to children after they had engaged in a period of prosocial behavior. Children's television viewing decreased after being provided these interventions and follow-up suggested that changes were maintained over time." (Leonard and Fries, 2004) the work of Smeltzer (2007) entitled: "A Health Plans Approach to Adolescent Tobacco Cessation" relates that the program used by Humana has several components to successful behavior modification that include:

1) Make adolescents aware of programming and health issues;

2) Have adolescents participate in the activities;

3) by participation the adolescents become 'smarter' about the issue;

4) the adolescent's attitude changes;

5) the adolescent's behavior experiences an actual change;

6) the adolescent's risk profile is reduced;

7) All this results in a decreased need of counseling services; and 7) There is a reduction in the aggregate medical costs in the long-term.

Smeltzer (2007) relates that there are several views from which the adolescent's approaches Behavior modification therapy as follows:

1) Try to Act - 10%;

2) Ready to Act - 25%;

3) Fence Sitter - 25%; and 4) Apathy - 40%.(2007)

Smeltzer states that the challenges that adolescents face to behavior change are inclusive of the following:

1) Peer Pressure;

2) Impressionable;

3) Rebellious;

4) Perception of Immortality; and 5) Lack of Environmental Control. (2007)

VI. BEHAVIORAL MODIFICATION PRINCIPLES

The work of Huitt (1994) entitled: "Principles for Behavior Modification" published in the Educational Psychology Interactive Journal relates the following principles for the behavioral modification approach to therapy:

To develop a new behavior

1. Successive Approximation Principle: To teach a child to act in a manner in which he has seldom or never before behaved, reward successive steps to the final behavior.

2. Continuous Reinforcement Principle: To develop a new behavior that the child has not previously exhibited, arrange for an immediate reward after each correct performance.

3. Negative Reinforcement Principle: To increase a child's performance in a particular way, you may arrange for him to avoid or escape a mild aversive situation by improving his behavior or by allowing him to avoid the aversive situation by behaving appropriately.

4. Modeling Principle: To teach a child new ways of behaving, allow him to observe a prestigeful person performing the desired behavior.

5. Cueing Principle: To teach a child to remember to act at a specific time, arrange for him to receive a cue for the correct performance just before the action is expected rather than after he has performed it incorrectly.

6. Discrimination Principle: To teach a child to act in a particular way under one set of circumstances but not in another, help him to identify the cues that differentiate the circumstances and reward him only when his action is appropriate to the cue.

To strengthen a new behavior

7. Decreasing Reinforcement Principle: To encourage a child to continue performing an established behavior with few or no rewards, gradually require a longer time period or more correct responses before a correct behavior is rewarded.

8. Variable Reinforcement Principle: To improve or increase a child's performance of a certain activity, provide the child with an intermittent reward.

To maintain an established behavior

9. Substitution Principle: To change reinforcers when a previously effective reward is no longer controlling behavior, present it just before (or as soon as possible to) the time you present the new, hopefully more effective reward.

To stop inappropriate behavior

10. Satiation Principle: To stop a child from acting in a particular way, you may allow him to continue (or insist that he continue) performing the undesired act until he tires of it.

11. Extinction Principle: To stop a child from acting in a particular way, you may arrange conditions so that he receives no rewards following the undesired act.

12. Incompatible Alternative Principle: To stop a child from acting in a particular way, you may reward an alternative action that is inconsistent with or cannot be performed at the same time as the undesired act.

13. Punishment Principle: To stop a child from acting in a certain way, deliver an aversive stimuli immediately after the action occurs. Since punishment results in increased hostility and aggression, it should only be used infrequently and in conjunction with reinforcement.

To modify emotional behavior

14. Avoidance Principle: To teach a child to avoid a certain type of situation, simultaneously present to the child the situation to be avoided (or some representation of it) and some aversive condition (or its representation).

15. Fear Reduction Principle: To help a child overcome his fear of a particular situation, gradually increase his exposure to the feared situation while he is otherwise comfortable, relaxed, secure or rewarded

SUMMARY

Today's youth are utilizing the Internet at an enormous rate with approximately 70% of American households having a computer at home that accesses the World Wide Web. While there are safety precautions and software systems that may be used to enhance the adolescent's use of the Internet through blocking unwanted subject material findings of this study have shown that adolescents are creative in by passing firewalls and further that adolescents are targeted by advertisers and gaming companies who seek the personal information of the unsuspecting adolescents. Furthermore, the Internet has sexual predators, information that may encourage drug use and other adolescent risk-taking behaviors. The literature reviewed in this study has clearly demonstrated that there are great dangers existing online the Internet for the unaware and ill-prepared adolescent individual however, the positive aspects of Internet use are even greater. Therefore, it is clear that a behavioral modification program to assist adolescents in proper, productive and positive use of the Internet is crucial. This type of behavioral modification is reliant on the interaction and support of the community, school, family, peer-group and the adolescent in being successfully and effectively applied in the life of the adolescent. This study has noted that behavioral modification for Internet use among adolescents should include components, which address issues of: (1) socialization; (2) psychosocial development; (3) substance use/abuse; (4) sexuality/relationships; and (5) gender issues and this study notes that this list of components is by not any means exhaustive. Finally, this work has made available the principles of behavior modification for use with an adolescent population.