Perceived effectiveness of inner city education programs and trends for disadvantaged adults

Adult Education, Literature Review

In contemporary Western culture, may adults incorrectly assume that school and learning is a process reserved for children. May adults believe themselves incapable of relearning, hence the popular cliche, "You can't teach an old dog new tricks." This self-defeating belief, while less common than a few decades previous is still an attempt for many adults, particularly those who are disadvantaged, to separate themselves from the educational system at large. In truth, the human brain is constantly interpreting its surroundings, and as long as it is exposed to new situations and stimuli, new neurological pathways are created. Certainly, it is true that it may be easier to assimilate certain types of knowledge as a child, but it is a combination of desire and exposure that allows adults to experience learning throughout their life. In fact, an individual who considers themselves to be a perpetual student is likely to feel happier, more content, and more engaged and excited about the world than someone who thinks they are either "too old," or "have too many barriers" to continue the learning process. While education can (and does) occur outside of an established classroom or school system, one of the most effective ways to encourage adults to embrace learning and education is through adult education programs and classes. Adult education is important and significant for people of all ages, and from all backgrounds. It is a way to continue to improve individually, to uncover new talents and opportunities, and to find a way to enjoy a potential new career or avenue of self-actualization (Merrian, et.al. 2006).

Adult education per se is the practice of teaching adults. This can happen in the workplace, through continuing education courses taught at either the college or secondary level; or, for some subjects, at community colleges, life learning centers, libraries, or other community venues. Often scholars refer to adult learning as andragogy, as opposed to pedagogy; and a stratified difference is also made between vocational education, typically workplace related and focused on new tasks, skills, or systems that directly impact one's career, personal development education (e.g. dance, music, scuba diving, etc.), or formal education designed to foster a new career choice, or enhance one's ability to integrate more fully into the community. Within the model of Adult Education, a subset focuses on Disadvantaged Adults, who often take part in all rubrics of andragogy, depending upon their unique situation. Besides the typical resistance factors surrounding adult education, those adults with disadvantages economically, socially, or developmentally have an even more difficult time pursuing additional educational resources (Knowles, et.al., 2005). For this essay, we will review the literature and basic paradigm sets for two topics: 1) the perceived effectiveness of inner city educational programs for adults, and, 2) Trends in education to improve the opportunities for disadvantaged adults.

The perceived effectiveness of inner city educational programs for adults - While adult education may strike many people as a new concept, and most people would guess that adult students make up a minority of the student population, it is actually extremely common and already widely embraced. The fact is that most post-high school students are enrolled in "adult" education. The majority of even undergraduate freshman college students have already reached the age of eighteen and are therefore adult students. A basic associate's degree, which is not considered to be very impressive in the professional world of careers, takes at least two years to earn. Most traditional college students are seeking an undergraduate degree such as a bachelor's degree, which is considered standard for most professional career paths, which usually takes four years of college studies to earn. A master's degree can take six years or more, and any doctorate level degree can take eight full years of higher education to achieve. This means that even traditional "college-age" students that begin their higher educational studies immediately following high school graduation in the most commonly accepted of ways are often approaching thirty years old before leaving school. Helping the general population to make the connection between "adult education" and the already established Western educational system may help demystify and therefore strengthen all

forms of education (Gordon, 2002).

Particularly true in inner-city urban environments, Adult education for nontraditional students has grown in popularity, but is still considered to be abnormal for most people. Nontraditional students may include adults who were unable to obtain a high school diploma, those who did not choose to enter college immediately following high school, those who have already obtained a degree and are choosing to further their learning, those who are seeking specific career or skill training, or those who are taking classes just for "fun." Adult education can be a second chance for many people who were unable to earn a high school diploma at a younger age due to any number of circumstances; many adults return to school to get their GED for personal fulfillment or a career boost. Many working adults also choose to return to school even if they are already on a successful career path because it can be an enjoyable escape from the mundaneness of the workplace or to learn new skills. Adults who have chosen to be homemakers or are unable to work for some reason can find pleasure in adult education programs that empower them with knowledge and new skills. Adults in higher education are exposed to a variety of people and situations, and the diversity that can be found in the classroom can improve the ability of a person to function within the diversity of society. Additionally, returning to school can be a way to keep adults from becoming isolated from recent findings and modern technology that is often aimed at the younger generations that are still in school (Beder, 1991).

Uniquely, it is sometimes in inner city, urban environments that new philosophies of education are found. Whether this is because those citizens are used to test new ideas, or simply because they are typically more in need, there is a clear trend towards innovation and creativity, as opposed to simply more funding for the same, within the modern urban environment. For example, the term "non-formal" education may mean programs that range from small-scale individualized tutoring or small group educational activities to large scale city or national programs; from highly contextualized to standardized programs; from temporary learning programs to permanent alternatives to formal coursework; from literacy and basic education to vocation and advanced continuing professional development. The concept, though, arose out of the insufficiencies within and criticism of the formal education system, which often fails those disadvantaged or within areas of urban blight or economic malaise (Brookfield, 1991).

Quickly, educators learned that in order to truly help adults in the inner city, several things were necessary: a greater adaptation to inner-city needs and circumstances of learners, creative uses of educational resources, community participation, decentralized and more flexible organization and management, and less authoritarian and teaching styles. "Over time, formal and non-formal education often opposed rather than complicated each other. Many say out-of-school education as the natural place for innovation and for diversification of education and learning strategies, and in-school education as inherently rigid, homogenous, static and resistant to change" (Rogers, 2005, p. 236).

Trends within the inner city can thus be categorized into four major program development tools:

Keep insturctors as older adults; they engender maturity, this is especially true in courses focusing on computers -- keep the classrooms free of young computer "whizzes."

Place emphasis on having fun, and regardless of the subject matter, utilizing available technology to both offer comfort and provide a secondary educational benefit.

Socializing, peer group acceptance, and the ability to see the coursework as "fitting in" with the urban lifestyle gauges very important, and;

Courses must offer a great deal of stimuli, intellectually, pacing (but not fast), and relative contemporary materials (Long, 1987, p. 104).

Trends in education to improve the opportunities for disadvantaged adult's -However, particularly within the economically disadvantaged urban areas, the very idea of adult education has a major stumbling block -- literacy. At least 40 million American adults need stronger literacy skills to take advantage of more lifelong learning opportunities (Knowles, 1995, p. 12). Low literacy limits life chances, regardless of how it is defined or measured. Basic skills and literacy abilities are widely viewed as necessities for lifelong learning and the development of success among individuals, families, communities, and even nations. Helping children improve their literacy skills can help them develop the capacity for lifelong learning, keep pace with changing educational expectations and rapid technological change, and achieve their life goals. However, in modern society, there are many adults literacy skills who lack the foundation they need to find and keep decent jobs, to support their children's education, and to help them mold a literate future (Sum, 1999).

To determine the literacy skills of American adults, the 1992 National Adult Literacy Survey (NALS) used to test items that resembled tasks within everyday life. The NALS classified the results into five levels that are now commonly used to describe adults' literacy skills. In Level 1 almost all of the adults can read a little but not well enough to fill out an application, read a food label, or read a simple story to a child. Adults in Level 2 usually can perform more complex tasks such as comparing-contrasting, or integrating pieces of information but usually not higher-level reading and problem-solving skills. Adults in levels 3 through 5 usually can perform the same types of more complex tasks with increasing length and subject matter (Ibid).

Very few adults are completely illiterate; they simply fall into the lower levels of literacy. Between 21 and 23% of the adult population or approximately 44 million people, according to the National Adult Literacy Survey (NALS), scored in Level 1. Another 25-28% of the adult population, or between 45 and 50 million people, scored in Level 2. Literacy experts believe that adults with skills at Levels 1 and 2 lack a sufficient foundation of basic skills to function successfully in our society. This is a relatively serious societal problem -- literally million of adults who are unable to do many of the tasks most of us take for granted. In fact:

7 million Americans are illiterate.

50% of adults cannot read a book written at an eighth grade level.

20% of Americans are functionally illiterate and read below a 5th grade level.

30 million Americans cannot read a simple sentence.

How Illiteracy Affects Job Prospects

3 out of 4 people on welfare cannot read.

75% of today's jobs require at least a ninth-grade reading level.

27 million are unable to read well enough to complete a job application.

20% of Americans read below the level needed to earn a living wage.

50% of the unemployed people who fall between the ages of 16 and 21 cannot read well enough to be considered functionally literate.

Between 46 and 51% of American adults have an income well below the individual threshold poverty level because of their inability to read.

Of the Gross National Product, only 5.3% is spent on public education.

How Illiteracy Affects Society

3 out of 5 people in an American prison cannot read.

Low literacy is strongly related to crime. 70% of prisoners fall into the lowest two levels of reading proficiency.

85% of juvenile offenders have problems reading.

Approximately 50% of Americans read so poorly that they are unable to perform simple tasks such as balancing a checkbook and reading prescription drug labels.

To determine how many prison beds will be needed in future years, some states actually base part of their projection on how well current elementary students are performing on reading tests.

How Illiteracy Costs Taxpayers

Illiteracy costs American taxpayers an estimated $20 billion each year.

Illiteracy has been proven to cause children to drop out of school. Dropouts cost our nation $240 billion in social service expenditures and lost tax revenues (Baker, 2008).

Individual tutoring is the normal solution for illiteracy, while small group tutoring is more common in English literacy programs. Instructional methods vary depending on the learner's personal goals and learning style. There are many ways that literate citizens may help in their communities. Indeed, almost every American community is begging for literacy volunteers, and have programs set up during various times of the day so students and teachers n more easily interact. Government is also working to end illiteracy. The federal government provided over $500 million for adult education and family literacy programs in 2005. This funding enables millions to participate in basic education programs that help people help themselves. Federal adult education funds average an additional $800 million each year in state funds for literacy, and millions of dollars in private funding. That government, regardless of administration, realizes the importance of literacy is an outstanding opportunity for inner city groups to take advantage of these programs. and, while funding is available, it is not always enough to supply the needs of smaller communities, or rural areas (Casey, et.al., 2006).

There also are many factors that help to explain the relatively large number of adults in Level 1. Twenty-five percent of adults in Level 1 were immigrants who many have just been learning to speak English. More than 60% didn't complete high school. More than 30% were over 65. More than twenty-five percent had physical or mental conditions that kept them from fully participating in work, school, housework, or other activities, and almost twenty percent had vision problems that affected their ability to read print (Ibid).

Recommendations for the enhancement of urban and inner-city programs for literacy, life-skills, or simply other options to increase literacy, are often subjective. However, recent scholarship sees five major goals needed to help bridge the literacy gap as society moves into the dominant 21st century cultural paradigm:

1. Keep adult education at the community level; it will have a greater positive effect. Overall, research shows that individualized program characteristics play a larger role in student outcome that demographic or pscyhographic data from the student. Flexibility in programming is far more important than class make-up.

2. Partner with inner-city organizations and community/business leaders to spend time alleviating the mythos surrounding inner cities; field trips, walking to restaurants of coffee shops, all play an integral role in the establishment of key concepts and future studies.

3. Continue to track, monitor, and advocate for urban educational programs.

4. Be wary of over measurement and over sampling; but do figure out a way to provide variable levels in reading, other adult vocations that, by necessity, influence funding.

5. Adults with learning or physical disabilities did not report any net losses in the field; but neither did they report dramatic gains (Ardilea, 2000).

As the education level of adults improves, so does their children's success in school. Helping the low-literate adults improve their basic skills has a direct impact on both the education and quality of the life of their children. Children are probably more encouraged in homes with literate parents to receive a good education and lead a strong life. The children can set reachable goals for themselves that someday can very likely become a reality (Knowles, et.al. 2005)..

The homeless are another disadvantaged group that is in need of educational focus. Yet, others feel strongly that educational programs are an important component in reducing the homeless population. In order to eliminate homelessness, federally funded adult education programs in reading skills, life skills and job training should be available and accessible to those in need. This education teaches the fundamentals needed to read the want ads, prepare resumes and complete job applications. Many former students have commented that living in shelters has caused them to feel like they were as low as they could go. The opportunity to learn about decision making, conflict resolution, interviewing techniques and communication skills has empowered the homeless students by boosting their self-esteem (Stronge & Victor, 2000). Most of the homeless population is hindered by limited employment opportunities and trapped by inadequate wages. Accordingly, the Homeless Education and Resource Organization started by former Miss America, Kimberly Aiken, set up a computer lab enabling the homeless to develop computer skills that would help them move beyond minimum wage jobs (Desjarlais, 1997).