Final exam study guide

Terrorism Final Examination

Questions #1, #3, & #5

Bjorgo discusses levels of causation in the introduction of his book. These include structural causes, facilitator (or accelerator) causes, triggering causes, and motivational causes. At a macro level, how does each of these contribute to terrorism? In other words, concentrate on each of these types of causal factors at a general level (e.g. all kinds of structural causes), instead of focusing on individual causes (e.g. globalization, which is a type of structural cause). In your opinion, which of these contributes most significantly? It is in answering this question that you can introduce more on the individual causes.

Structural causes of terrorism are typically more plentiful and easy to measure. Ross states "structural theories posit that the causes of terrorism can be found in environment and the political, cultural, social, and economic structure of societies." (Ross, 1993,-Page 317) Structural causes of terrorism can be religious or sexual oppression. A structural cause can be a political or economic system such as socialism or capitalism. Structural causes can be abject poverty, malnutrition, excessive crime rates, and other detrimental factors that act as stressors within a society or culture. There has not been a great deal of research regarding structural causes of terrorism; Ross furthermore contends that the lack of research of the structural causes of terrorism is due to confusion between structural causes and psychological causes of terrorism. (1993) In his 1993 study on the structural roots of terrorism, Ross determined three primary structural causes that contribute to terrorism as well as several other supporting and/or relevant factors that affect the degree of influence such causes have. They are as follows:

…the three permissive causes are hypothesized to be from least to most important: Geographical Location, Type of Political System, and Level of Modernization. And the seven precipitants are hypothesized to be from least to most important: Social, Cultural, and Historical Facilitation, Organizational Split and Development, Presence of Other Forms of Unrest, Support, Counterterrorist Organization Failure, Availability of Weapons and Explosives, and Grievances. (Ross, 1993,-Page 320)

Where the potential or actual terrorists are located may be an obvious structural cause, but it is significant nonetheless. Though humans have the abilities to adapt to a great array of environments and conditions, there are some geographical locations within which they are supremely more difficult to survive. The struggle for everyday survival can be an overwhelming stressor for the average person and the terrorist. The line of thinking here is that a terrorist is more likely to live in a place where there is arduous and constant struggle as a result of the physical environment. The level of modernization of the environment of the terrorist can also mean if the terrorist lives in a first, second, or third world country. Modernization manifests itself in ways such as access to and abundant supply of current and/or futuristic technology, irrigation and sewer systems, electricity, Internet, and general level of industrialization across many areas. There are terrorists that come from the third world and there are terrorists that come from the first world, such as the United States of America. On a related note, the type of political system of the environment of the terrorist plays a critical role as well, as most terrorists and terrorist groups have political agenda and motivations behind the actions they take.

Accelerator or facilitator causes of terrorism can include but are not limited to such things as the evolution of mass media, systems of transportation, weapons technology, and a weak or non-existent government at the local, state, and/or federal levels. Accelerator causes do just that -- they accelerate the process by which the terrorist activities are conducted or carried out. Accelerator causes may also speed up the urges or tendencies for terrorism, such as the Internet. Before the Internet, it took a great deal longer to access and assimilate all the information available about terrorism domestic and abroad. People who may be terrorists know have instantaneous access to an abundance of information previously unavailable or imaginable thirty or forty years ago. This is a way that media acts as an accelerator cause for terrorism (potentially).

Motivational causes occur on the personal level. They relate to personal experience had by the individual terrorist that motivates him or her into action. Motivational causes are perceived & actual inequalities and injustices. Terrorists are typically motivated by political imbalances and cultural inequalities. Terrorists have suffered personal losses which also adds to their motivation to act. Triggering causes can also be motivational cause. Triggering causes could be the results of structural causes. A triggering causes is a personal trauma, one that is so severe and/or heinous that revenge or some other similar action is desired and required in the minds of the terrorists. Sometimes, from the perspective of the terrorists, they are not terrorists, they are freedom fighters and it is from the perspective of those the terrorists oppose who qualify them as terrorists:

Context is especially significant as a direct cause of terrorism when it affects an elite, not the mass population. Terrorism is essentially the result of elite disaffection; it represents the strategy of a minority, who may act on behalf of a wider popular constituency who have not been consulted about, and do not necessarily approve of, the terrorists' aims or methods…Many terrorists today are young, well-educated, and middle class in background. Such students or young professionals, with prior political experience, are disillusioned with the prospects of changing society and see little chance of access to the system despite their privileged status. (Crenshaw, 1981,-Page 384)

Terrorists are not always dirty, angry, poor, illiterate hooligans, committing acts of vandalism and terrorism without aim or intention. Many terrorists come from background where they are well to do enough and educated enough to have a greater awareness of the injustices of their countries.

As for the personal opinion of the author regarding which causes most greatly contribute to terrorism, it is my opinion that all the causes contribute to the existence of terrorism. Structural causes often have effects that act as motivational causes. Terrorism is a very personal endeavor. There are not members of highly successful, effective, and elusive terrorist groups who are lazy and who do not have a serious vested commitment in the group and the group's goals. Terrorism must be personal. Personal motivation drives people to seek what they believe to be justice. Justice is a very personal matter. Recollect any experience you may have had where the outcome was unjust. How intense was the feeling for retribution or justice? Leaders of terrorist groups often connect with members on a personal level so as to sustain their motivation and sometimes manipulate members into committing such acts as suicide bombings. Terrorist groups are very tight-knit and the members know a great deal about the other members. A lot of personal knowledge about the group members may save their lives while out in the field and amassing personal details about each member of a terrorist group makes the group closer. The group feels like friends, siblings, comrades -- group loyalty and overall group dynamics are just as important in a terrorist organization as in a lawful organization.

I argue that terrorism stems from a combination of effects because the universe does not behave such that there is one single cause that produces one isolated affect. There is always a set of conditions or circumstances in which many forces and factors are at play simultaneously that have a range of results. The combination of the conditions and factors, such as the different types of causes, collide with a person's individual past and experience to create a situation that makes for a terrorist activity. The process is the same with serial killers or other types of criminals. There was a status quo, a series of unfortunate events occurred, combined with that person's unstable predisposition, and voila: serial killer. It is the same with a terrorist. It is not as if one day the terrorist gets wrongfully thrown in jail and then becomes a terrorist. In a situation like that, there were probably structural causes at play that interacted with accelerator causes and motivational causes, creating a situation where a person may believe that the only correct course of action is terrorist action. Recessions in a capitalist economy cause a person to lose his or her job. The loss of income acts as a stress on that person's romantic relationship. The person feels additional pressure and self loathing as he or she uses the Internet and a mobile device to search for jobs and fail. When a person younger, less experienced, and less qualified gets hired for the same or a better position than that person, depending on that person's disposition, he or she may snap and become a terrorist. That is a simple example, but the point is that factors combine and interact with each other at various points in time and the result is terrorism. There is no one-to-one direct cause and effect for terrorist activity.

Question 3

Why do some terrorist groups use suicide bombing as a strategy? Please include at least three reasons in your answer.

Terrorist groups use suicide bombing as a strategy is because suicide bombs are dramatic public displays of violence often taking place in sensitive areas. Consider suicide bombings in Israel, Palestine, and other areas in what is referred to in the west as the Middle East. The bombings are on public transportation and even school buses. The bombings take place in marketplaces or in other areas where there are high concentrations of civilians as well as military personnel. The targets of suicide bombings are mainly average civilians because their deaths instill the most tragedy and provide the maximum dramatic impact. Shafiq and Sinno state:

Perpetrators use suicide bombing as a high-profile and cost-effective tactic in the hope of producing cultural, economic, social, or political change (Berman and Laitin 2006; Pape 2003). In different conflicts, suicide bombings have targeted civilians, military personnel, political personnel, or some combination of these targets (Gambetta 2006)…In addition to claiming thousands of casualties, suicide bombs destroy infrastructure and private property, weaken the investment climate, undermine the tourism industry, and lead to the reallocation of resources in a way that undermines economic growth. (2010,-Page 147)

Though saddening, to receive notification that enlisted soldiers in a war died as a result of the war activities is within the normal realm of reason or speculation. Currently in this country, soldiers volunteers to put themselves in harm's way as part of the strategies to defend the United States. Children, families, the elderly, and the wounded are not parties expected to die as a result of a bomb explosion. The contrast is stark and the affect is dramatic.

Terrorists use suicide bombings as intentionally public ordeals with the purpose of drawing attention to the terrorist group and its objectives. Suicide bombings communicate that the time for talk or negotiations is over:

Violent actions such as suicide bombings are unusual and unnatural forms of human behaviour. Their mere occurrence indicates the presence of a serious problem in interpersonal interaction. Violence signals the collapse of dialogue and resort to unconventional means of communication. (Khashan, 2003,-Page 1049)

Terrorist groups use suicide bombing because such a strategy is a loud declaration or communication by the terrorist group about their goals and the lengths to which they will go to achieve them.

Suicide bombings garner an exceptional amount of attention from global press and media. Therefore, if a terrorist group wishes to draw the simultaneous attention of people, governments, and countries around the world, suicide bombing is an effective strategy to attract sufficient attention. Suicide bombings grab global attention instantaneously and grip consumers with terror. Suicide bombings in public areas disrupt the sense of order and safety that societies depend on to function as such. Suicide bombings additionally alert audiences that members of the terrorist group(s) responsible for the execution of the bombings are so profoundly dedicated to the groups ideals and to the achievement of its goals, that members of the group willingly (implied) sacrifice their lives in the name of the group's beliefs. That caliber of dedication is attention-grabbing, frightening in some cases, and in circumstances outside of terrorist activities, is profoundly humbling and rare. One of the most prominent aspects of suicide bombings is the willingness to surrender one's life in horrifically violent and public way. Most humans value their lives, or at least wish them to carry on for as long as possible. Suicide bombings are scary because the bombers agree to die and agree to kill as many other presumably innocent people with them as possible as one of the primary objectives. Unyielding commitment, loyalty, and sacrifice are necessities in terrorist organizations that utilize suicide bombings. (Kramer, 2012)

Consider the Kamikaze fighter pilots from Japan and their suicide attacks during World War II. Needless to say, Americans and people around the world were exceptionally shocked to learn and be attacked by pilots intentionally diving into aircraft carriers, submarines, speedboats, and other watercrafts. Up until that point in American history, the U.S. had not encountered an enemy with that much dedication and the willingness to sacrifice to such a great degree. Consider the suicide bombings that occurred in London in 2007 occurred in the London tube or metropolitan transit system. The bombings were scheduled to occur during peak hours in the morning. These terrorist attacks were clearly intended to injure as many civilians as possible. This was not an attack on a police station or a military base. It was an attack on everyday citizens. Suicide bombings that occur in areas that are of high use by many people in the locality or in areas where the safety of that area is taken for granted or presume by the public, dramatically display commitment to the terrorist cause. Suicide bombings, as with many organized terrorist actions, necessitate a great deal of planning and meticulous orchestration so as to be successful. Bombers must learn the local culture and language, find ways to sustain him or herself, and blend in with the locals. In many cases, the suicide bombers must earn and subsequently sacrifice the trust of local civilians as part of the plot.

A third reason as to why terrorist groups use suicide bombings, as part of their strategies is to disperse feelings of hopelessness and helplessness to the surrounding and viewing populations. Terrorists do not only attack buildings, buses, or train stations. Terrorists also attack people and they attack them in more than just physically. Terrorists attack victims psychologically and physically. In fact, the psychological damage may be just as important, if not more important, than the physically violent aspect of the action taken by the terrorist organization. Psychological damage and physical damage are primary affects of suicide bombings, in addition to terrorist activities in general.

Suicide bombings instill fear in the local community as well as the global community. Suicide bombings and other forms of terrorism disrupt and dismantle people's senses of safety in their homes and when traveling abroad. Suicide bombings make people afraid or much more anxious to travel via public transportation as many suicide bombings occur on buses, trains, school buses, and in subway stations or trains underground. Following the attacks in New York City on 9/11, the New York City Mass Transit Authority in conjunction with the local city administration, launched an entirely new marketing and messaging campaign in the trains, buses, and stations. The campaign centers around the slogan, "If you see something, say something." The campaign is still active to this day. It includes the diffusion of signs, advertisements, and regularly scheduled announcements by train staff while the train is in motion. Conductors and drivers either make the announcements live or play a pre-recorded message over the PA system of the train or bus. These announcements did not exist before 9/11. Furthermore, the messages and posters appear in several of the majorly spoken languages in New York City including English, Spanish, Mandarin, Korean, Russian, and Hebrew.

This campaign is a direct result of the fear and panic that washed over the city and the country after 9/11. The campaign itself, though designed to combat fear and empower citizens, the announcements and posters actually increase the fear and anxiety. Now more citizens are paying an excessive amount of attention to strangers trying to see something so they can say something, as the ad goes. Some New Yorkers, and more likely visitors to New York City will be additionally on edge and suspicious -- on the prowl for unsavory characters. The terrorism has caused an increased sense of fear and anxiety in the local area. Americans, after 9/11 were terrified and even advised by members of the media such as journalists and news broadcasters to not go abroad. Due to terrorist acts committed in the country and terrorism occurring internationally, Americans were encourage to stay within the country's borders and not dare venture forth. It simply was not safe for us. This is how terrorism takes away a person's sense of safety. This is how terrorism grips people with fear and does not let go, as it has been over ten years since 9/11 and New Yorkers are still very sensitive about the matter.

Existing in a constant state of fear and anxiety makes people vulnerable to threats and susceptible to suggestions. Fear weakens people's defenses for the most part. A certain level of fear can activate the release of adrenaline to prepare to flee or fight as a survival mechanism. Excessive levels of fear and anxiety wear people out quickly; they are quite literally exhausted from being afraid all the time. Those suffering from excessive fear and anxiety will have greater difficulty sleeping as compared to those who are not. Those who are gripped by feelings of excessive fear, panic, and anxiety are more susceptible to suggestions, especially to ones that claim to protect and ensure safety. Those who are gripped by fear and panic as a direct result/response to terrorist activities may behave abnormally and behave outside of their routines. These people might suddenly procure weapons, relocate, or blindly follow any person who claims to have their best interests in mind, whether it is true or note. This is the power over the masses that terrorist wield over the public when they commit such atrocities as suicide bombings. Suicide bombings weaken people physically, emotionally, psychologically, and spiritually. Suicide bombings often to outsiders seem like random violence. Acts of random horrible, debilitating violence can profoundly affect people, often for the worse. People can become hopelessly depressed. They may feel guilty that they survived and others did not. This power is very strong and it is another reason why terrorists use suicide bombings as a strategy in their arsenal of activities.

Question 5

How did the detentions at Guantanamo Bay violate global military, medical, legal, and political standards? Please make sure to address all four of these perspectives in your answer.

The detentions at Guantanamo Bay violate a variety of standards warranting its permanent closure. From a legal standpoint, a significant portion of the detainees arrive at Guantanamo Bay arrive without knowing what charges are filed against them, or in some circumstances, the charges filed against them are grossly unsubstantiated. With further regard to violations legal standards, the detainees are required to perform dangerous, menial, and humiliating tasks that put their lives and health at risk. Granted, they are prisoners in a detention camp, but dangerous activities and torture should not be permissible at a detention camp. Alternative activities and duties for prisoners and detainees should be found and exercised. The process by which many of the detainees reach Guantanamo Bay is also legally questionable. There are instances when steps in the due process in America or the prisoner's respective birthplace, site of alleged criminal activity, or location of apprehension were skipped, not followed, or blatantly ignored. (Huffington Post, 2012) Understandably, the rights of detainees in a detention center must be restricted by definition. The severe violations of human rights of the detainees at Guantanamo Bay are excessive and suspicious.

From a medical standpoint, there are additionally a great number of ways conditions and practices at Guantanamo Bay violate standards. There are reports that span years of detainees who make adamant claims regarding torture, sexual assault, and withholding of vital medical treatment. (The Guardian, 2012) Examples of specific acts include intentional dehydration, sleep deprivation, regularly administered obdurate beatings, forced feedings, and forced druggings. Some prisoners complained that they and others with them were force fed through tubes that were forcibly inserted into orifices such as the nose and the mouth, and into their stomachs, without sedatives in front of Naval physicians, and that the staff would use the same tubes for detainee after detainee without washing or sanitation procedure. Detainees experience extended interrogation sessions that may include exposure to extreme temperatures both hot & cold, extended exposure to exceptionally bright lights, and in 2005, reports surface that sexual methodology was enacted directly specifically at Muslim prisoners as a strategy to break their wills. (Huffington Post, 2012)

Politically, Guantanamo Bay is a very sticky situation without a clear cut consensus. There are those who obviously disagree the conditions maintained, the actions condoned, and the practices exercises at Guantanamo Bay for the detainees. There are many groups that advocate and fight for human rights around the world, including groups that fight for the rights of prisoners, prisoners of wars, and other kinds of detainees. These groups, organizations, and individuals that feel passionately against the human rights violations at Guantanamo Bay are the parties that want the place shut down forever. Yasui writes:

Civil liberties advocates, who have long been critical of Guantanamo, expressed disappointment that the military system remained in place more than two years after President Obama took office. Still, some lawyers for detainees said the executive order might speed the release of men imprisoned for years without trial, either after a review, a trial or a plea agreement. The new procedures for military commissions guarantee detainees access to a legal representative and to a broader range of classified information, which the detainee's representative can use to argue his client's case before the review board. The administration also said it would ask for Senate approval to sign on to an additional protocol of the Geneva Conventions governing humane treatment and fair trials for prisoners held in wartime. (2012)