Chile's history of colonization, military rule, and democratic recovery

Chile

Now one of the most prosperous nations in Latin America, Chile has undergone a series of traumatic transformations during the course of its lengthy history. Indigenous Chilean people have survived attacks from both Incas and Spanish invaders, and the latter half of the twentieth century saw one of the most brutal military regimes in recent memory. A narrow strip of land in south-western South America, Chile sits directly south of Peru and borders Argentina and Bolivia to the east and north-east, respectively. Its 6435-mile-long coastline comprises both Atlantic and Pacific waters, including the Strait of Magellan shared with neighboring Argentina. Easter Island, or Isla de Pascua, is home to mystifying monolithic stone sculptures, and is also proudly Chilean, along with Isla Sala y Gomez. Chile boasts dramatic differences in its national terrain, from rugged Andean cliffs and Patagonian wilderness, to the terrifyingly dry Atacama Desert, one of the world's most arid regions. But Chile also contains a fertile, Mediterranean-like central valley and verdant regions in the south. Unfortunate environmental degradation at the hands of Pinochet's regime is slowly being healed.

Chile's history and people are as diverse as its geography. Dominant native groups like the Mapuche resisted both Incan and Spanish rule but eventually fell prey to European colonization. The population of Chile remains largely mestizo, or mixed Spanish and native blood. Chile gained independence from Spain in 1817, after seven years of bloodshed and Mapuchean struggles for autonomy. When, during the Cold War, a democratically-elected Marxist government came to the fore under Dr. Salvador Allende, the United States was quick to interfere. Obsessed with the threat of global communism, Henry Kissinger and the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency supported a military coup led by General Augusto Pinochet to oust the leftist government in Chile. For the next seventeen years, the world turned a blind eye to atrocities committed by the Pinochet regime, including systematic torture, assassination, and imprisonment. Finally, in 1990 Pinochet was forced to cede power to the rightfully elected Patricio Aylwin Azocar. Since the, Chile has struggled to remain a player in the global economy while repairing the damages of years of oppressive rule.

Historical Background

The 750,000-plus square kilometers of what is now the Republic of Chile was once home to several native groups: mainly the Aymara in the northern regions and the Araucanians in the south and the lake districts. Most of these indigenous groups relied on hunting, gathering, and farming for sustenance and several were nomadic. The Mapuche, the largest Araucanian tribe, are literally the "people of the land." In the mid-15th century, a group of Incans crossed the Atacama Desert and encountered the Mapuche, who effectively drove off the fierce Incan fighters. The Mapuche stayed the Incans at the border of the Rio Maule River and prevented them from crossing into the Lake District. However, this valiant effort was soon thwarted, when less than 100 years later Pedro de Valdavia followed the Incan route and managed to cross the Rio Maule border. In February of 1541, de Valdavia founded Santiago. Although the Mapuche beheaded him in 1553, the ambitious Spaniard had already established several strongholds in Mapuche territory and became the first official governor of Chile.

Pedro de Valdavia was not the first Spaniard to conquer Chilean territory. Ferdinand Magellan touched ground there in October of 1520, and Diego de Almagro is credited with the first attempt to colonize the lands south of Peru, where the Spanish made their mark earlier. Colonial rule remained tense, and in December of 1553, a group of Araucanian warriors, led by Mapuche chief Lautero, rebelled against Spanish rule. Their efforts were admirable but unsuccessful, and Chile remained loyal to the Spanish crown until the early nineteenth century, despite widespread corruption and cruelty. The overthrow of the Spanish monarchy in the early 1800s set the stage for Chilean self-governance.

The early years of Chilean autonomy were not without bloodshed and strife. A liberal and enlightened government abolished slavery in 1823, but several failed governments plagued Chilean politics for years to come. Clashes between conservatives and liberals wiped out attempts to secure political stability, but Chile was a forerunner of constitutional democracy in the region. Numerous political parties were established by the twentieth century, in accordance with a federalist and parliamentary system. The Catholic Church played decisive but varying roles in Chilean politics, but civilian rule was the norm in Chile until the coup in 1973.

Demographics

Economic disparity has been and still is one of Chile's major problems, more so than racism. Chile is culturally more homogenous than many of its neighbors in South and Central America, with the majority of the population being mestizos. Around 100,000 Mapuche survive, and mostly reside in the forested lake district of Chile. The Aymara Indians, a smaller indigenous population, live in Northern Chile. The highest percentage of Chile's 15, 500,000 people dwell in the central valley in and around Santiago. 65.6% of the population is between 15 and 64 years old; 26.9% is between the ages of 0 and 14, while 7.5% is 65 years and older. Population growth is estimated at 1.09%, and the birth rate is 16.46 for every 1000 people. Population density is 20.3 persons per square kilometer. Life expectancy in Chile is 76.14 for the total population; there were 1000 deaths due to HIV / AIDS in 1999 (about.19% of the population).

Although most (95%) of Chilean nationals are of mixed Indian and Spanish blood, a sizable portion of the population is of various European and Mediterranean descents, including Basque and Palestinian. About 3% of the population is Amerindian. 89% of Chileans are Roman Catholic, and 11% are Protestant. Less than 1% of Chilean people are Jewish. The official language of Chile is Spanish, but Aymara and Mapuche languages are still spoken in their respective districts. Rapa Nui, a Polynesian language, is still spoken on Easter Island. The literacy rate (those over the age of fifteen who can read and write) is 95.2%, and is roughly equal for males and females. Compulsory education was instated in 1920, but in general enrollments were low. The Pinochet years saw even further decreases in perceived importance of education, but the military regime did support the construction of technical and vocational schools. Higher education in Chile is not free of charge, and this system exacerbates the unbalanced class structure.

Class structure is skewed, and income disparity is one of Chile's largest problems. Unemployment is 6.4%, and 20.5% of the population lived below the poverty line in the mid-1990s. The richest 20% earn seventeen times more than the poorest 20%, a disparity over twice that of the United States.

Economy

The three main sectors of the Chilean economy are copper mining, fishing, and forestry. Chile became a player in the global market economy under Pinochet's rule, for the dictator supported foreign investment at any cost (hence American support for his regime). Chile became the first developing nation to borrow from the World Bank in 1948, and currently holds a commitment of $3.68 billion (69 credits) to the World Bank. Chile's total foreign debt is around $30 billion. Although Chile is one of the wealthier Latin American nations, the country's economic growth has not favored fair income distribution. Disparity between the richest quintile and the poorest is among the world's highest. Since the 1990's, labor relations in Chile have improved, thanks to a series of formal agreements between business sectors, the labor movement, and the federal government. Minimum wages have increased dramatically since the Pinochet years, as have access to improved training and negotiation mechanisms, like the right to strike. Gender discrimination is prohibited by law, and there is a policy of equal pay for equal work. About 18% of the workforce is unionized. Poverty levels remain unduly high for a relatively prosperous economy, thanks to Pinochet's legacy of favoring big business over social services.

Human Rights

On September 11, 1973, democratically elected President Salvador Allende was killed in a military coup. Led by General Augusto Pinochet Ugarte, the coup was supported by the U.S. CIA, which feared Allende's Marxist philosophical stance. For the next seventeen years, the people of Chile would be subjected to rabid human rights abuses, including murders, forced exiles, and tortures. Pinochet's regime ranks as one of the world's most nefarious in modern history; an estimated 10% of the Chilean population were affected directly by Pinochet's tactics. Between 1973 and 1975 alone, an estimated 42,486 people were detained for political reasons, and according to the Rettig Report, 3,197 people died or went missing between 1973 and 1990. These are conservative numbers, as many of the military tactics used were stealthy and subversive. Forced disappearances, job dismissals, surveillance, "stray" bullets, abductions, and all other forms of state terrorism were used to squelch political opposition to the Pinochet government.

Anyone or any organization opposed or accused of opposing Pinochet were targets: members of leftist political parties, union leaders, leaders of the agrarian reform movements, intellectuals, human rights activists, and the families and friends of the above. It is possible that the U.S. FBI may have assisted in the tracking of Chilean leftists in the 1970s, as the United States preferred a brutal dictator to any trace of Marxism. During the 1980s, national civilian protests grew in strength and finally, a free election saw Patricio Aylwin Azocar replace Pinochet as head of state.

Environment

The Pinochet government, to attract foreign money, decimated forests and depleted water and mining reserves. Native forests were and still are being replaced by non-indigenous or unsustainable pine and eucalyptus. Soil loss, environmental contamination from chemicals used in agriculture and mining, and smog due to automobile and factory exhaust plague Chile. As soon as he was elected, Aylwin made improving the Chilean environment a top priority, and since 1990 some improvements have been made due to changes in political decision making. However, Santiago, a city resting in a natural basin and surrounded by high mountains, suffers from air pollution that exceeds WHO standards.

Conclusion

Never a leaf moves in Chile without my knowing of it." General Pinochet secured control of the nation of Chile for a decade and a half, during which thousands of people were killed, imprisoned, exiled, or tortured. This scar of Chilean history must not mar the beauty of its indigenous cultures or the richness of its natural splendor. The thin sliver of South America that is the Republic of Chile has survived centuries of trauma both at the hands of Spanish conquistadors and military dictatorships supported by the United States. Finally, in the 1990s and beyond, Chile has regained its footing on the world's stage and is an increasingly viable partner in global economics. Although Chile has a long way to go to alleviate an unnaturally wide income disparity, the country is a relatively peaceful and stable nation, one which appeals to tourists, artists, and scholars.