Truancy Rationale, Relevance, Significance Organization

Truancy

Rationale, Relevance, Significance

Organization of Remainder of Study

Review of the Critical Literature

Historical Context

Motivational and Behavioral Research: Why Punishment Doesn't Work

Co-Morbidity with Other Problems: Identifying Stressors

Bridging the Gap Between the Criminal Justice System and School Counselors

Experimental Design and the Problem of Truancy

Researcher's Philosophy

Research Design Guide or Model

Sampling Design and Setting

Measures

Field Testing/Pilot Testing

Internal Validity

External Validity

Expected Findings

Ethical Issues

Timeline

New Approach to an Old Problem: Do Incentive Programs Decrease Truancy among Middle School Students

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

Truancy refers to any unexcused absence from school. Each state enacts their own school attendance laws and determines at what age the child is required to begin schooling, when a child can legally drop out of school, and the number of unexcused absences before a student is considered legally truant (NCSE, n.d.). Truancy adversely affects the student, resulting in lower grades and decreased chances for success in life. Truancy only applies to children who are of legal age for compulsory school attendance.

Reducing truancy is an objective of every school in the nation. As pressure increases to raise standardized test scores, the need to reduce truancy among all grade levels increases also. Truancy has a negative impact on students, the school, and on the overall performance of the educational system of the country. Traditionally, truancy has been handled through negative consequences and the involvement of the criminal justice system. The successfulness of these methods is marginal, at best. This study will explore the use of positive reinforcement as an affective means of reducing truancy in the school system.

This research will explore the use of positive reinforcement through the use of items that can be earned through attendance and participation in the school system. This type of rewards system represents a new approach to the problem of truancy. Use of positive instead of negative reinforcement represents a paradigm shift in methodology for dealing with the truancy problem. This study will explore the effectiveness of a rewards/points system in reducing truancy in middle school students.

Background of the Study

One of the key problems that plagues study of the truancy problem is a lack of statistical evidence on a national level (NCSE, n.d.). Data from Wisconsin suggests that as many as 1.6% of all students were absent in any one single day (NCSE, n.d.). According to national statistics, students that experienced behavioral problems were often sent to see a guidance counselor. Schools tended to employ one guidance counselor for every 284-335 students (NCES, 2004), This can mean a heavy case load for school counselors.

Studies regarding court cases for truancy based on gender found that boys were only slightly more likely to be sent to court for truancy than girls. Of the petitioned cases from 1990-1999 54% were boys and 46% were girls (Puzzanchera, 2003). Gender differences were of little significance in the truancy issue.

Truancy is not the end of the problem, but the beginning. Truancy has been linked to several undesirable, and much more serious behaviors, as criminal activity, social isolation, educational failure, drop out, substance abuse, teen pregnancy, low self-esteem, and troubled family relationships (Office of the Surgeon General, 2001; Center for Mental Health Services, 2001). These problems have a significant impact on society, not only while the child is in school, but it affects them when they get out of school as well. It impacts their ability to find employment and become productive members of society. Truancy has a high social cost, much of which is difficult to measure in concrete terms. However, the impact on society is real and it is significant.

Truancy is a significant problem for schools and for communities. The goal is to prevent truancy before it becomes problematic. A critical need exists to find ways to combat truancy and the impact on society. A study that involved 28 communities found that truancy was a good predictor of middle school drug use. The same study found that truant 8th graders were more likely to smoke marijuana than those who attended school regularly (Halfors, et al., 2002). This was a key reason for the selection of middle school students for participation in the study.

There are many statistics missing from studies regarding truancy. For instance, no representative national numbers appear to exist. The reason for this lack of information is that many schools do not collect these statistics. Seemingly related statistics indicate that those who do not graduate from high school have reduced chances for employment and a higher chance for committing a crime than those that do not have a high school diploma or GED (Harlow, 2003). Therefore, reducing truancy is an important issue that has high social costs at stake.

Many factors have been found to be associated with truancy. These include inconsistency in the application of attendance policies, policies that "push out" students with poor performance, a lack of parental notification of absences, safety issues, a poor school atmosphere, and the inability to identify special educational needs (NCSE, n.d.). Several familial factors were found to be the identified with increased truancy as well. These include family health of financial matters that pressure the student to care for others or perhaps hold a job. Abuse or neglect, teen pregnancy, safety issues near a child's home or on the way to and from school, parental substance abuse, or negative role models all contribute to truancy among students (NCSE, n.d.).

As one can see, many factors may contribute to school truancy. Some of them arise from school, and others arise from the home. Regardless of from where the issues stem, the resultant truancy has negative consequence on the community and on the students. Reducing truancy rates should be a priority for every school system in every community. Reducing truancy is an important issue due to the impact on the school and the communities that support them.

Statement of the Problem

Truancy poses significant societal problem and poses a threat to the future of youth. In the past, methods to help resolve truancy have resulted in little impact on the overall rate of truancy. This study will examine a new approach to the problem based on positive reinforcement, rather than punishment.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study is to examine a new, positive approach to reducing truancy levels among middle school students.

Research Questions

This study will explore a new approach to resolving high rates of truancy among middle school students. However, in addition to this central issue, it will also explore the topic of truancy in greater depth. It will attempt to fill in many missing gaps that exist in research regarding truancy. The question of a lack of statistical records on truancy will be explored by asking the research question, "What are the real truancy numbers in the schools chosen for study?"

The literature review revealed that there are many contributing factors to truancy rates. It suggested that factors at both school and at home are to blame for many incidences of truancy. This research will be solution based, therefore, rather than relying on the central issues behind the truancy, the study will remain focused on a single cause, discovering a way to reduce truancy. The study will explore the question, "What factors influence the success or failure of a positive reinforcement program designed to decrease truancy rates?" In doing so, the research will answer the question of why and how the method affects truancy rates.

The study will focus on the motivation of the students to attend school. The study will explore the program in relation to its ability to encourage students to come to school and participate. For instance, the research will examine the most effective reward schemes and what they mean in terms of producing a real reduction in truancy. The study will ask the research question, "How does the reward program affect the willingness and motivation for students to attend school

Taking these research questions into consideration, the following research hypotheses will be used to determine the success or failure of the program.

H1: The positive reinforcement program proposed in this research will result in a statistically significant decrease in truancy when compared to data prior to the program.

H01: The positive reinforcement program proposed in this research will not result in a statistically significant decrease in truancy when compared to data prior to the program.

This single hypothesis will serve as the unifying element for the research study. It will be supported by the research questions to provide a deeper understanding of the issues at hand.

Study Variables

This study will utilize a quantitative research design. It will consist of statistical measures both prior to treatment and after treatment has been applied to the control group. For this study, truancy rates for middle school students are expected to be dependent upon their response to an incentive program designed to encourage them to go to school. The dependent variable for this study will be the truancy rate for students over the test period. The independent variable will be the positive reinforcement as represented by the incentive program. The study will be examined by examining increases or decreases on the overall attendance rate of students before application of an incentive program and then after the incentive program has been in effect for at least 1/2 of the school year. It is expected increases or decreases in the truancy rates will be due to the independent variable.

Rationale, Relevance, and Significance

This study is being proposed as the result of a literature review that which suggested that methods to curtail truancy in the past relied on negative consequences as key motivators. However, this research wishes to take a more positive approach to motivating students to attend school. A new approach to the problem of truancy is needed. The ultimate goal of the study is to reduce the overall truancy rate among middle school students.

This is a much needed study in the field of educational administration. It will provide insight into a new approach to resolving the truancy problem. It will provide school counselors and administrators a new approach to attempt in order to resolve the truancy problem. This study will be used by school counselors and administrators to help introduce programs aimed at reducing the average truancy rate for the school system. It will also be of use to law enforcement officials who wish to provide an alternative to the punishment-based systems that have prevailed in the past.

This study has significant relevance to other scholars in this field of study. It will examine a new way of thinking about attendance and about how to reduce truancy. It will stray from traditional methods of dealing with the issue and will provide insight into a new direction for the field to take. The old, punishment-based systems are only marginally effective. Yet, no one has ever tried a more positive approach to the problem. Research in the past simply used the old methods of resolving the truancy issue without question. This research will present an alternative to the negative reinforcement-based systems of the past. Positive reinforcement is a prominent technique in many related disciplines. People will be more likely to be motivated by working towards a goal than by avoiding negative consequences.

This study is significant in within several academic fields. It is expected that the outcomes of the study will support the use of positive reinforcement over negative methods of behavior modification concerning truancy in middle school students. The study will provide a new model for resolving an old problem. It will provide a new approach to enticing students to attend school through the use of a rewards system that is based on positive reinforcement techniques.

Practitioners in the field of education will be able to use this information to devise programs that get results. School counselors can use the program developed as a part of this study to provide a new method for dealing with truancy issues. The scholarly community will be able to use this research as a springboard into a new paradigm regarding truancy and the ability to decrease it in the future. There is much research that could be done in the future. Researchers could test various methods of reward. They could try out the program on different age and demographic groups of students. They could test its efficacy against punishment-based forms of truancy measures.

There are many gaps in research regarding truancy. An examination of the topic leads to the conclusion that current methods for dealing with the problem are not based on recent research on human motivation. It leads to the conclusion that the current system using the threat of the criminal justice system and punishment has not changed in recent years. It is based on archaic ideals based on using the threat of punishment as a deterrent to a behavior. However, recent research into the area suggests that punishment-based systems may be ineffective in reducing many types of unwanted behavior, such as truancy. This research will give school personnel and law enforcement professionals new tools for addressing the growing problem of truancy in our public schools. This research will help to fill in several missing gaps in the most recent research studies. It will draw its techniques from other fields that have applied the method of positive reinforcement to behavior modification.

Nature of the Study

This study will be a quantitative study that addresses the issue of school truancy. It will present a new perspective on the problem of school truancy and various means to reduce it. The study will use a comparative research study method that assesses truancy levels before the program is applied to the test population and after application of the test procedure to the chosen test population. Due to the fact that many schools do not track truancy numbers in their student population, the study will have to be conducted by first determining the truancy levels in the school before the test condition is applied.

This study will examine truancy levels in terms of changes in truancy levels after the program has been applied to the student population. This study will help to determine the impact of using positive reinforcement as opposed to aversion techniques for the reduction of school truancy in the school system. The study takes a different approach from other studies found in the literature review, as it examines the topic from a different perspective. Rather than testing the old methods, it proposes a new method for reducing truancy in schools.

Definition of Terms

This research study examines the topic of truancy, which would appear to be a simple term to define. However, defining truancy and the various terms in a meaningful way that will allow the research variables to be isolated is a rather complex issue. The following will define key terms, as used in the proposed research study.

Local Education Administration (LEA) -- the local education administration refers to the school in which the school district in which the study will be conducted.

Middle School Student -- This term will be narrowly defined to include only those students currently enrolled in grades 7-8 for the current school year.

School Administrators -- This refers to those persons in charge of making macro-level policy changes on a district-wide level. It will not include principals of a specific grade level.

School Counselor -- the school counselor will be the person or person that are responsible for administering counseling to students that have been truant. Many school systems have different nomenclature for the school counselor. They may be called an academic advisor, school psychologist, sociologist or many other names. There position is defined in this study by the role that they perform, rather than their formal title within the school system.

Truancy -- There are many aspects to truancy that make it a difficult term to understand and define. One of the primary difficulties in defining the term is that although every state in the U.S. has enacted compulsory school attendance, many differences exist in what is considered school attendance and the various rules that govern it. Although the mandate to attend school for children of a certain age is mandatory, there are many variations within the states themselves. For instance, in Michigan, the age of compulsory school attendance is ages 6-16 (Michigan Department of Education, 2002). However, Alabama is considering raising the compulsory school attendance age to 17 or 18 (Goymer, 2007). Differences such as these affect the definition of truancy, from one state to another. One of the difficulties occurs when a person moves from a state with a lower compulsory school age to one of higher compulsory school age.

The official definition of truancy refers to an unauthorized absence from school. However, definitions of an unauthorized absence differ from state to state and from school district to school district. In many cases, a doctor's note indicating that the student could not attend school and was legitimately ill. However, in some cases, even a medical excuse counts against the student, particularly when the absence results in extended work missed and causes the student to fall behind. Every case is different and every school district interprets the case differently. These differences will have to be taken into consideration in the research design. A uniform definition of truancy will means an unexcused absence from school without a valid medical excuse presented within the required time period.

Assumptions and Limitations

Differences in the definition of truancy and in state and local attendance regulations will have an impact on the ability to apply the results of the study to other situations. The exact policies and definitions of truancy used by the school district to be tested will have to be included as part of the study design. It will be assumed that the rules and policies that apply to truancy in the chosen school district will affect the outcome of the study. These will be taken into account in the analysis and interpretation of the results.

One of the external problems that may affect the reliability of the study is the consistent application of the rules, regardless of the exact rules themselves. It will be assumed that administration and other staff members are following the rules and interpreting them in a consistent manner. Although, this may be an underlying problem, there is no concrete way to measure the consistency with which the rules are applied. It will have to be assumed that school staff has the desire to apply the rules in a fair and equitable manner and that they do so with the best interests of the students at heart.

Inconsistencies in the rules themselves and application of the rules will have an impact on the effectiveness of past methods designed to reduce truancy and on the ability of the new model to produce the desired results. The researcher has no means to control actions and application of the rules in the past. However, attention to proper training in the new reinforcement schedule will have to be a priority. If the new system is not applied in a fair and equitable manner, it will be difficult to determine if the new system was the reason for the success or failure of the program in the school district.

In addition to these test factors related to rules and their application, conditions may exist within the demographics or culture of the community that will have an impact on the success or failure of the new model. For instance, one may find that truancy in poor school districts is different from that in rural school districts. The reasons for truancy may be different as well. Factors such as bullying, family culture, and other demographic factors have an impact on the truancy rate within a given school district. Issues such as these will be addressed via a survey given to the middle aged school population of the chosen school districts. The survey will attempt to uncover demographic information that may either increase or reduce the truancy rate in the school district.

External factors that have an impact on truancy levels within the school districts. Differences in baseline truancy levels within the school district are a difficult variable to control for the researcher. This was one factor that had an impact on the design methodology chosen for the research study. Cultural and demographic differences within the school districts makes it difficult to make a fair comparison between the various school districts. In order to assess the efficacy of the newly proposed reinforcement regimes, one needs to be able to level the field in terms of similar policies, consistency in applying these policies and limiting external factors within the community that may affect the outcome of the study.

Many of the factors that could affect the outcome of the study cannot be controlled by the researcher. Therefore, a design had to be devised that would limit the impact on the study results. A comparison between different school districts would not yield valid results due to the presence of an extreme number of external variables. Therefore, it was decided that the comparison needed to be made within the same school district. This was the key reason for choosing a pre-condition/post condition research methodology. The details of this method will be further discussed in the Methodology section of the study.

In order to compensate for the presence of external variables in the study design, a comparison of truancy rates before the program was implement and after the program was implements, was conducted. Differences between the post-condition results and the baseline will be compared and tested for statistical differences. However, this has the potential to create a small sample population, in terms of the number of school districts involved. This would have the affect of limiting the applicability of the study results to only school districts that are similar to the one used in the study. It is almost impossible to find two different school districts that are similar enough for the study results to be valid. Therefore, the results of such methodology would resemble a case study with a single sample than a comparative study that demonstrates the efficacy of the new reinforcement method across multiple situations and scenarios.

In order to make the results of the study more useful and more readily applied to a number of research scenarios, it was felt that it was necessary to demonstrate consistent results in different situations, all of which had different sets of confounding variables and circumstances. In order to accomplish this, the same study will be repeated in five different school districts and the results compared between them. This will result in the ability to apply the results within the school district and to other school districts as well, regardless of the community culture involved.

External variables are a part of every research study. The researcher can account for and eliminate many of the factors that will affect the outcome of the study. However, there are always factors that cannot be eliminated through the research design. These factors are inherent in the sample population and are difficult to change. The degree to which these external affect the ability to apply the results of the study to other situations varies. In some studies, external variables will have little impact on the outcome of the study. However, in other studies, such as this one, external variables could have a severe negative impact on the usefulness of the information attained. The research design took these factors into consideration and the proposed research design will achieve applicability through comparison of various school districts.

For this particular research study, external variables that are beyond the control of the researcher have the potential to limit the usefulness of the study in the reduction of truancy in school systems throughout the U.S. However, it is expected that the proposed research design will limit the impact of confounding variables on the applicability of the research design to the current research study.

Organization of the Remainder of the Study

Chapter One of this research proposal discussed the background of the problem. It examined the scope and extent of the problem. It also examined the necessity of finding new methods for reducing school truancy. This research present a different approach to resolution of the problem of truancy in the middle school setting. It discussed the impact of confounding variables and defined the terms that will be used in the research study.

Chapter Two consists of the literature review for the research study. This chapter will examine the existing body of research concerning truancy and methods to reduce it in many school settings. This chapter will examine the theoretical framework that is the basis for the research study and current practice within the field. It will examine bridging the gaps and controversies within the field of study. It will review critical literature in the study of truancy in schools. It will draw in other theories that relate to the topic of truancy and the resolution of the truancy problem in America. It will examine motivational theory, as well as the theoretical underpinnings of current practice in attendance policy. It will explore the theoretical underpinnings of the proposed research method and compare it to the existing methods of dealing with the truancy problem. The final task of Chapter Two will be to summarize the existing body of research into a cohesive whole that can be applied to the proposed reward regime and its impact on truancy in the chosen school systems.

Chapter Three outlines the research methodology that will be used to study the research topic. It will examine the researcher's philosophy and will examine the connection between theory and its application to the research design. It will set forth the parameters of the research study, as well as the limitations for the study. This chapter will outline the data collection procedures, data analysis procedures and pilot testing procedures. The methodology will outline how the research constructs relate to the validity and expectations of the research findings.

The organization of the research proposal is such that the design extends the applicability of the research design beyond the research setting. The study will tie current theory and practice regarding truancy to future changes that will enable the school to inspire students to attend. This research study represents a paradigm shift from traditional thought and practice regarding school truancy. This study will enhance the existing body of knowledge by providing an alternative to current practice in the field.

CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW

Introduction

In the first Chapter, it was discovered that the problem of truancy has a significant impact on the outcome of a child's potential in life. In addition, with the pressure shifted to overall school performance, everyone has something at stake. Communities and the nation realize that in order to remain competitive, the overall educational level of the country must be raised. This has placed the issue of truancy at the forefront.

The following will explore the body of research that exists regarding the truancy and the methods that have been attempted to curb it. The literature review will focus on recent literature. However, in order to understand fully the context of the problem, one must take a look back at where roots of the problem. Truancy is not only an academic problem, but also involves the criminal justice system. The literature review will explore the need for a new approach than has become the accepted norm for dealing with the problem.

The literature review will explore the theoretical framework of the problem. This discussion will support the need for more extensive research in the area and a new approach to the problem. This section of the literature will present several critical debates with in the field of academic administration and how to reduce truancy.

The literature will then explore several topic that relate to the problem of truancy and how to solve it. The first topic to be explored will be a historical examination of truancy and an examination of the development of current policy and research. The second major topic will explore how research into motivation and behavioral science have an impact on the ability to resolve the problem. It will focus on how new research into these areas relates to the problem of truancy an school attendance. The third topic area will explore the most recent information that is available on truancy. It will examine the approach and methods that are currently being used to attempt to curb truancy. It will examine the successes and failures of current research. The research will then explore the relationship between the criminal justice system and the school counselor in this topic. Finally, the literature review will explore the most common research designs that have been employed to examine the topic in the past.

Theoretical Framework

An examination of the historical background of the issue of truancy and current methods for combating it reveal that very little has changed in the field for the past 150 years. Efforts to reduce truancy focus on laws, enforcement and punishment. The issue of truancy is closely tied to the area of criminal justice. There are many reasons for a youth's truancy and other forms of juvenile delinquency. Much of the early research into the field focused on the effectiveness of the criminal justice system in handling the problem of truancy. An examination of this approach revealed that using the criminal justice system as the sole means for combating the problem is not only ineffective, it may be counterproductive as well.

During the 1980s and 1990s, research focused on finding causality between factors that contributed to truancy and the underlying causes for the behavior. Although this body of research was important for the development of recent research, it did little to resolve the issues. Programs were beginning to emerge that attempted to resolve the issue of truancy through focusing on the underlying issues. However, these programs and studies were few and far between. A majority of the programs continued to focus on punishment as the key method for resolving the truancy issue.

Recently, contributions from the field of motivational and behavioral psychology have had a significant impact on the direction that research into truancy is currently taking. Recent theory is exploring the development of data-supported methods and interventions for truancy. Until recently, the methods used for controlling truancy were not supported by empirical evidence, and recent developments suggest that they are doing more harm than good. Isolating students and punishing them are not likely to motivate them to attend school. They are likely to have the opposite effect.

Research into truancy has been plagued by a significant lack of data-based methodology. Programs need to be developed that use the basic principals of positive reinforcement as their key motivator. Positive reinforcement has been demonstrated to have a much better impact as a motivator than avoidance-based methods. Using these principals as a theoretical basis, this research will examine the potential success of programs that emphasize reward, rather than punishment as their key form of intervention. This theoretical framework will support the methods developed for this research study.

Motivational theory will play a central role in the framework of this research study. The goals of the study is not to make students avoid truancy, it is to motivate them to attend school. While these two items would at first appear to be the same, there is a significant difference in them from the standpoint of human motivation. The truancy/dropout phenomenon is not a single, impulsive act, but rather reflects a slow disintegration that has measurable indicators along the way (Lehr, Hansen, & Sinclair et al., 2003). It is important to recognize the signs early on in the process and to intervene in such as way that makes stops the disintegration process and re-engages the student in school and their social life.

Recent research focuses on developing an understanding of the complex interplay between the student, family, school and community, as well as the protective factors that prevent them form truancy, even in the face of other factors placing them at-risk (Lehr, Hansen, & Sinclair et al., 2003). One of the key gaps in the current body of research is a lack of data based interventions. Practices vary from school system to school system. Interventions may include a number of practices including counseling, remediation, tutoring, attendance monitoring, and after-school clubs (Lehr, Hansen, & Sinclair et al., 2003). All of these practices are being used, yet there is little research to support their use or effectiveness. This lack of data-based intervention forms the greatest gap in the body of evidence surrounding regarding effective interventions and research-based theory on truancy.

A significant feature of the framework of this study, is that it bases its chosen methodology on the simple concept of positive reinforcement. It will examine the proposed intervention using empirical methods and a mixed methodology that will not only provide data-based evidence, but will also provide insight into why the particular results are obtained. This research is expected to demonstrate the effectiveness of a rewards program over punishment-based systems in reducing truancy rates among middle school students.

This study represents a new paradigm in addressing the problem of truancy in the schools. As such, it will be a leader in the design of similar research studies in the future. It is not based on any one particular model, but is derived from a combination of techniques discovered during the literature review. This research will tackle the problem of truancy through the lens of standard behavioral theory and the concepts of reward and punishment. Viewing problem of truancy through a behavioral lens, rather than through a criminal justice lens is likely to result in higher motivation levels for school attendance.

It is expected that the results of this study will demonstrate the superiority of positive reinforcement over punishment-based systems for reducing truancy. The key reasoning for this assumption is that motivational research contends that positive reinforcement is more effective than negative reinforcement. In addition, evidence suggested that consequences have demonstrated little effectiveness in curbing truancy.

This research will represent a new approach to an old problem. Controversy in the subject area stems from a lack of effective methods and a lack of data to support best practices in the reduction of truancy. School counselors are the first line in the student's path when they are truant. However, these professionals have little credible evidence upon which to base their practice. The key gap in the knowledge base stems from a lack of data-backed information that supports practice. This research will help to resolve a key gap in the knowledge base about the subject matter.

This research strays from traditional thinking regarding the reduction of truancy. It approaches the topic from a different angle and offers the possibility of a fresh perspective. It is expected that this research will lead to additional research that investigates positive methods of reducing truancy, as well as a serious re-evaluation of the criminal justice system in connection with truancy issues.

The old system of punishment emphasize the negative actions of the individual and destroys their self-esteem. Yet, it is still used a key method by guidance counselors. Using a method that has little support and that damages the student's self-esteem and confidence, does not support the development of individuals with characteristics that lead to success. The system sets them up for failure, rather than building them back up. This is counterintuitive and goes against research regarding common risk factors associated with truancy. One of the key risk factors for truancy was a lack of self-confidence, a feeling of a lack of control, and problems with peers. Creating a situation that stigmatizes the student is to set them up for the development of future risk factors.

The current punishment-based system is in conflict with research that supports that low self-esteem students with a lack of control are most likely to continue to be truant, and potentially drop out. A system that raises the student's confidence by allowing them to succeed in reaching a goal is much more in alignment with research on truancy and juvenile delinquency. This research will bridge the gap between theory and practice in the reduction of truancy. The theoretical framework of this study will connect the positive benefits of reaching goals with a willingness and desire to attend school on a regular basis.

Review of the Critical Literature

Now that we understand the general theoretical framework and assumptions that are behind this research study, a detail investigation of current literature on the topic is in order. This examination will be divided into several topic areas. It will include a historical review of the issue of truancy, motivational and behavioral research, recent research on truancy, and research designs that have been explored in the examination of the topic. It will discuss area that are directly related to truancy, as well as those that are not directly related, but that will have an impact on the success or failure of the chosen remedy. It will also explore the role of the criminal justice system in the development and administration of compulsory school attendance policy. The literature review will also explore the role of school counselors in curbing the problem, as well as the major challenges that they face.

Historical Context

Before one can attempt to propose a new approach to help resolve the problem of truancy, one must gain an understanding of where the problem came from. One must examine the road that has bee traveled and the path that has been taken. Examining the successes and mistakes of the past is an important step in the development of future actions that will be more likely to result in resolution of the problem in the future. The following will explore the history of truancy and research methods of the past.

As we discovered in chapter one, compulsory education is a state level issue. Therefore, it would be difficult construct an overall history of truancy and policy in the United States. Taking into account all of the differences in state rules and regulations would be exhaustive, and would not help to resolve the problem of reducing truancy in schools. Therefore, it is not felt that this type of historical information is relevant to the issue at hand.

On a macro level, truancy is a deviation from the expected norms of a society. To understand the historical context of truancy, one must first understand the roots of compulsory education. For many centuries, the issue of truancy did not exist. Education existed for the elite. It was considered a special privilege afforded to those that were destined for a higher station in life. The masses were largely illiterate and uneducated prior to the 1800s.

In the early 19th century, it became apparent that in order for society to progress, a literate and educated population was necessary. For example, in the 1840s, Scotland established an inspector whose job it was to make certain that children were regularly attending school. The student was truant was viewed as being simply "out of place" (Paterson, 1989). Under this system, schools became a structured mechanism of discipline for the working class. The goal was not to produce an individual who could achieve highly personal goals for themselves, but to train the working class to do as they were told by their superiors, thus making them capable to being capable of producing the goods that were necessary at the time. School in the early days was more about keeping the masses in their proper place than about individual goals and aspirations. The concept of truancy and compulsory school attendance has its roots in Europe, spreading later to the United States (Paterson, 1989).

One of the key factors that led to educational reform in the United States was population growth. The original school system in the United States was devised to manage small, highly dispersed populations of people (Capen, 1874). However, by 1855, this system was reorganized into a hierarchical structure that would manage the growth of the schools. The movement of the first School Board began on the east coast in centers of high population. This "School Committee" was designed to "get the most work out of both teachers and scholars" (Capen, 1874, p. 24). At this juncture in time, individual schools were reorganized into a central body that would regulate and oversee the activities of schools within their system.

The 1850s saw many changes to the school system and the first laws regulating school policy. It was becoming apparent to the masses, that formal education was necessary for the advancement of society and for increased productivity. Education was becoming something for everyone, not just the wealthy and privileged. On April 12, 1853, New York enacted the first truancy law. This law mandated that a $50.00 fine would be charged against parents whose children between the ages of five and fifteen were absent from school (Northend, 1853). This action formalized the precedent for parental responsibility and supervision of their children.

An 1888 report from the Commissioner of Education expounded on the connection between truancy and other criminal activity was established (United States Bureau of Education, 1891). As early as 1846, truancy was considered a crime under the term "juvenile depravity" (Davis, 1915). Davis's work also made the connection between truancy, juvenile crime and its prevalence in the lower classes of society at the time. From the 1850s through the early 1900s, truancy was considered a crime. Overall, methods for combating truancy were limited to various forms of punishment, many of which were severe (Davis, 1915).

Even in its early days, the problem of truancy was recognized for its other undesirable affects on society. The trend began in Boston, but eventually every state in the U.S. had a compulsory school law, which made it illegal for a juvenile between certain ages to miss school for any reason other than illness. From the very beginning, truancy was a criminal justice problem, and the only solution to the problem was punishment of various means and forms. From the beginning of truancy law, parents were considered a key factor in the success of punishment-based truancy policies. Harsh reform schools were established for children who broke truancy laws (Davis, 1915).

As the 20th century progressed, little changed regarding truancy policy and how it was handled, for the purposes of this study, an exhaustive recounting is not necessary. In summary, truancy officers, whose role has changed little since the 1850s pursued truant children, turned them over to the court system, and issued warnings and punishment to their parents. The current system for dealing with truancy has a long traditional history, dating back to before the 1850s. When one looks at the current system for dealing with truancy, a comparative look back reveals that in the past 150 years, little has changed in terms of truancy law or methods for handling the problem of truancy.

Truancy officers were, and still are primarily prosecutors as far as their role is concerned (Crimmins, 1969). Throughout the history of the issue, the criminal justice aspect of truancy has been emphasized much more than the educational aspects of the issue. It was not until the 1990s, that truancy officials began to rethink the problem. Regardless of the method or the severity of the problem, truancy continued to grow to epidemic proportions. The idea began to creep into school officials that the key to the problem was not to continue to do the same things that had been done for close to 150 years. It was obvious that the old system had never worked and that it still did not work.

Tougher punishment and stricter enforcement were obviously not the answer (Griggs, 1997). Yet, as the problem grew, so did the efforts that used the criminal justice system as the sole solution to a problem, regardless of how ineffective it appeared to be. When the system failed, the answer was always the same better enforcement and stiffer punishment. Suggestions ranged from jail time to cutting off welfare benefits to the parents of truant children (Rabinovitz, 1996). Victorian-style methods of control still dominated the preferred solution to the problem.

During the 1980s truancy became a topic of interest in academic research. Until that time, research focused on the criminal/punishment aspects of the truancy issue. During the 1980s one begins to see a focus on early intervention and on identifying students that are at-risk for truancy issues (Sommer, 1985). A focus shifted to the importance of family services and help resolving the underlying issues associated with truancy.

By the 1990s, an honest effort was underway by the academic community to understand truancy and its many causes. The focus of a majority of research during this time was directed at discovering causal relationships that could be used to resolve the issue of truancy. The focus began to shift to understanding the problem, rather than simply reacting as had been done in the past with harsher laws. During the 1990s great strides were made in understanding truancy and its causes.

Emphasis in research from this time found that system set juveniles up for failure. Involvement in the juvenile justice system was found to significantly increase the likelihood that a person will be likely to move on to become a drop out (Dorn, 1996). This research pointed out that jailing truant juveniles did not increase the likelihood that they would return to the school system to become excellent students. Instead, according to Dorn, it was an almost instant formula for failure. Once in the Juvenile justice system, the problems that led to truancy and other associated behaviors were not likely to be resolved. The underlying problem remained.

As focus shifted from punishment to finding the causes of truancy, with the eventual goal of prevention, a set of risk factors for truancy began to emerge. For instance, it was found that young adults with symptoms of personality disorder were more likely to be truant than those without this risk factor (Cohen, 1996). It was also found that these children were more likely to become adults with personality disorder. Second chance programs that gave your at risk for failing a second chance to succeed by participating in alternative school settings (Lange & Lehr, 1999). The societal impact of school truancy and drop out rate crept into articles about school truancy. The connection with crime, poverty, mental illness (Kronick, 1994), and substance abuse (Crum, Esniminger, & Ro et al., 1998).

During the 1990s the topic of motivation and its association with truancy also began to creep into this field. Factors such as the role of effective feedback, intrinsic motivation, and a person's self-concept began to serve a role in explaining why juveniles chose to become truant, or engage in other undesirable behaviors (Mill, 1991). It was found that seldom could a single source of motivation explain the reasons behind truancy, or any other unwanted behavior in youth. A racial gap in truancy was also found. African-Americans were more at-risk than other racial groups for poor grades, truancy and other forms of juvenile delinquency (McCarthy & Hoge, 1987).

Research into truancy conducted during the 1980s and 1990s laid the groundwork for emerging themes in research today. Now it is recognized that truancy has a tremendous social impact and that a number of variables contribute to students at-risk for truancy. Research has switched its focus from causality to discovering innovative ways to motivate students to attend school. Paradigms from a behavioral standpoint are beginning to change, but practices still focus on a punishment based approach to dealing with truancy. At the current time, these practices are embedded into the educational and justice system. They are still the most prevalent means of treating the problem of truancy, regardless of a lack of academic support for their success.

Motivational and Behavioral Research: Why Punishment Doesn't Work

Truancy is not a matter of bad children behaving badly, or of bad parents forgoing their parental role. The issues involved in truancy go beyond the student, the school or the parents. Literature has found many conditions that contribute to truancy. Truancy represents failure of the system to create an environment in which the student feels that they want to come to school.

One of the key misunderstandings in the truancy issue is the difference between motivation and control. Motivation stems from a positive feeling and a desire to succeed in school and a positive feeling about school. Control-based measures seldom achieve this state of desire to attend school and to set academic sights high on the achievement scale. Control-based measures may compel the student to attend based on fear, but they will seldom result in the internal changes that create a desire to succeed. The ability to create an internal change and true desire for learning is the difference between achieving a permanent solution to the problem and the likelihood that the student will be a lifetime offender on the road to drop out. In order to produce the types of changes necessary to ensure long-term success, one must turn to motivational research for the answers. The following will present a motivational and behavioral perspective on the truancy issue.

Truancy is a behavioral and motivational issue more than it is a criminal justice issue. The problem is not what punishment the criminal should receive, but how to motivate them to come to school in the future. In truant and low-performing students, a lack of self-confidence in their ability to achieve academically was found to decrease motivation to attend school (Martin, Martin, & Gibson et al., 2007).

A recent program involving Portuguese families sought to decrease problem behaviors, while increasing school attendance. This program, referred to as Alternative Paths (AP) sought to increase motivation for school attendance by focusing on integrating the students into the community and making them feel as if they are important (Sarmento, Almeida, & Rauktis et al., 2008).

An after school program that focused on increasing tutoring, cultural, and social/recreational activities demonstrated considerable success in decreasing truancy for at-risk African-American adolescents (Martin, Martin, & Gibson et al., 2007). Reward-based programs have proven much more affective in increasing attendance rates than punishment-based programs (Martin, Martin, & Gibson et al., 2007). The Discovery Program represents a program that is designed to combat the underlying causes of truancy and delinquency. This program was found to be highly effective in reducing the truancy rates among program participants (Ventura & Miller, 2008).

These programs, and many others like them, demonstrate that positive reinforcement works to reduce truancy. Programs that focus on making school a positive experience are more effective in improving attendance than programs that create a negative experience for the children. There is a plethora of information emerging that supports this position.

A recent study involving French technical schools found that issues connected with truancy were not related to oppositional defiance disorder or to a lack of motivation. This study found that truancy was linked to anxiety over school (Brandabas, Juenier, & Claude et al., 2004). This study concluded that positive reinforcement and social desirability was the key to reducing truancy and maladjustments to school. Those that were truant were found to be harboring unexpressed anxiety about school.

The French study supports the basic premise of the proposed research study. Taking this information into account, it is not surprising that punishment does not solve the truancy problem and in some cases makes it worse. The stress and fear of punishment increase anxiety in an already stressed student. The fear of punishment is more likely to make the student miss school to avoid the punishment. Fear of punishment seldom acts as a motivator to perform a task, such as going to school. Truancy is an avoidant behavior in many cases.

When the child is skipping school to avoid a negative outcome, such as bullying, punishment, or a feeling of failure over grades, threatening them only leads to the anxiety, creating a vicious circle that compounds the undesirable behavior. In this case, skipping school serves as a positive reinforcer, because they can avoid the punishment and stressors. Until this cycle is stopped, truancy will remain a means of coping with the world in the child's life.

Aside from empirical studies that support the use of positive reinforcement, evidence also exists from the field of neurophysiology that positive reinforcement produces a different neurological affect than punishment. Different portions of the brain process reward and punishment. The amygdala is the potion of the brain that is responsible for motivation and also the one that responds to reinforcement (Tye & Janak, 2006).

The amygdala determines the emotional state that is attached to a certain stimuli. In another study that examined classical conditioning using appetitive and aversive emotional responses of rats, it was found that both emotional responses were expressed through a similar set of responses, including rises in blood pressure and emotional response (Shabel & Janak, 2009). Pavlovian learning is driven by the neurological response called the pavlovian-instrumental response (PIT) (Bray, Rangel, & Shimojo et al., 2008: Talmi, Seymour, & Dayan et al., 2007).

Research supports a neurological, basis for the assumptions presented in this research study. The responses attained by the juveniles will demonstrate different processing for positive and negative stimuli. When one combines this with research that supports the use of positive stimulus, over aversion, it demonstrates a possible explanation for the unsuccessful attempts of the criminal justice system to control truancy through punishment.

Understanding the basic concepts of motivation is the path that will lead to resolution of the problem. Continuing to go down the wrong path by piling on anxiety and stress over school, will not resolve the problem. School must be a positive place, not a place of anxiety for the child to wish to go there. When a child skips school, it is more than likely an action designed to help them avoid a stressor. As previous research found, there are many stressors that stem from many different sources. However, they all create a feeling of anxiety, leading to the natural tendency to take action to avoid the stressor, whether it is the bully on the way to school, a fear of being singled out and chastised by the teacher, or a feeling of failure over grades. It is a feeling of fear that drives the child to avoid school, not a desire to be "bad" or to rebel. Until we understand this and act on it, the problem of truancy will never be resolved.

The supposition that punishment creates additional problems that are likely to have the affect of increasing anxiety, which will lead to greater problems is supported by research. It was found that children who had experienced suspension from school were likely to develop problems with their family, peers, and their feelings about themselves. The study concluded that child that had been suspended were more likely to experience high levels of family conflict, habitual alcohol abuse, low rank in their peer groups and social dissatisfaction with friends (Yen & Wang, 2009). The study also found that those who had been suspended were more likely to engage in future deviant behaviors, experience low connectedness with school, and experience poor academic achievement. This comparative study was based on comparison of two cohort groups. It supports the supposition that punishment only leads to a cycle of deviant behavior and social problems, leaving the real problems unaddressed.

Until we understand truancy as an avoidance behavior that is in itself rewarding, through the avoidance of a negative factor, the problem of truancy will never be resolved. There is not only academic behavioral research to support this, there is physiological evidence to support this as well. If school were a positive event for the child, their brain would response with the release of positive chemicals. However, if school is a major source of fear, it will create the physiological release of stress hormones. If school is stressful, then it is not likely evoke a desire to attend. One typically does not move towards pain and anxiety, but tends to move away from it.

Using punishment-based systems to tackle truancy is counterintuitive to current study and practice on human motivation. Policy and practice must be in alignment with sound theory in order to work. At the current time, the punishment based approach tends to create a cycle of fear and avoidance, which does not make any sense from a motivational theory perspective. Yet, the criminal justice system continues to feed this circle by treating the problem with stiffer punishments and tougher enforcement. Using a solution that goes against current motivational theory is not likely to result in real answers to the problem. The cycle must be stopped and replaced with an approach that is in alignment with current motivational theory, not one that has changed little since the Victorian era.

Co-morbidity with other problems: Identifying Stressors

Previous research, including than conducted in the 1980s found that a there are connections between certain factors and the tendency for truancy. Identifying those factors will help educators to identify those students that are at-risk for truancy and other problems. However, many of these variables represent situations over which the school, counselor, or sometimes the student has no control. These factors will form the confounding variables for this research study. These items cannot be eliminated, but the child can be taught coping mechanisms to help them better deal with the problems.

As we discovered in the previous section, the only method that will work in the resolution of school truancy is one that is based on sound motivational theory and positive reinforcement. Identifying the stressors that contribute to anxiety is an important part of this process. Creating a positive school environment is another factor that has been demonstrated in studies discussed in the previous section. However, there are many stressors that can impact a child's sense of anxiety over school and encourage them to avoid the behavior. These stressors must be dealt with through individual counseling and positive intervention in order to teach the child to cope with them. The following will explore stressors and their impact on anxiety in the school setting.

School truancy, poor grades and other school related problems have been associated with the presence of emotional, behavioral, and other learning problems (Lopes, 2007). However, the author feels that not enough attention has been placed on these issues and that more needs to be done to resolve these problems. Conroy, Stichter, & Daunic et al., (2008) explored the problems of conducting studies in classrooms with children that have emotional, behavioral, and learning disturbances. The focus of classroom-based research is to develop behavioral interventions that will benefit the teacher and students in that setting. One of the key difficulties discovered in research that involved students with emotional and behavioral disturbances is that it is difficult to apply the information to other students, in a standard classroom setting. These authors found that the problem of relevance was the greatest challenge facing researchers in this field.

A case study approach was used to examine the reasons for early school leaving. This study found that several factors contribute to school leaving. These factors include lack of motivation and problems arising from choosing the wrong vocational track (Beekhoven & Dekkers, 2009). This study supports the necessity of providing counseling and providing students the opportunity to express these concerns. This study presents one example where identifying the problems may have prevented these students from leaving school if the only reason for leaving was lack of interest in their vocational track, choosing another track may have been the answer that would have kept them in school.

In a study that examined common factors among those who engaged in school skipping, it was found that truancy could be attributes to several correlates. The most prevalent factors that effected truancy were poor grades, low self-confidence in their ability to graduate, and drug use (Henry, 2007). This study assumed that drug use was tied to unsupervised time, but this was not demonstrated in the study. It remains only an assumption until further testing can resolve the issue one way or another.

Resolving the underlying issues that lead to truancy and other deviant behaviors is the key to resolving the issues. Among adolescent girls, it was found that a desire to "party," an activity that involves drinking, smoking, and disorderly conduct, was more likely to occur in girls that had one or more of several risk factors. These factors include issues with the parent-child relationship, exposure to peer deviant behaviors, and issues involving romantic involvement (Haynie, 2003).

School bullying is more common as a reason for truancy that one would be likely tot believe. School violence is becoming a growing problem in schools across the country (Aluede, Adeleke, & Omoike et al., 2008; Carney, & Nottis, 2008). Like the problem of truancy, bullying or anger related behavior often stem from other issues as well (Thomas & Smith, 2004). A recent study found that being different from the crowd in any way sets a child up to be the victim of bullying (Thomas & Smith, 2004). Recently a flurry of legislation has been adopted to attempt to curb bullying. In the past, bullying was not considered a serious enough topic to enter into public policy. However, the increase in bullying and its affects on academic performance and truancy have brought the issue to the forefront (Limber & Small, 2003).

Studies have examined correlational factors that place children at risk for truancy. Many of these factors that are associated with truancy may or may not have an impact on any particular child. There are a number of factors that can help to mitigate the affects of these contributors. Considering risk is only part of the equation. In order to assess the risk of any one student for committing truancy, one must also consider the protective factors involved with the child. Protective factors include association with a high-achieving low delinquency peer group (Henry & Huizinga, 2007). School achievement was found to be a mitigating factor against association with a highly delinquent peer group (Henry & Huizinga, 2007). Peer group association was found to be one of the most important factors that influenced truancy and other delinquent behaviors. However, high personal achievement was also an important factor.

One program in particular combined the issues and concerns found in the earlier portion of this research. The GEAR UP program targeted high-risk students in urban areas. It concentrated on three primary goals, to improve academic performance, to decrease behavior problems, and to reduce truancy and absenteeism (Yampolskaya, Massey, & Greenbaum, 2006). In a controlled study it was found that race and gender have a significant impact on the success of the program.

These two factors were predictive of a willingness to participate in the program activities. It was also found that students who spent a high amount of time on academics, improved their grades, and were more likely to take advantage of behavior-related services. This study demonstrates that the various factors that influence behavior and truancy are interconnected and that attention to one area, such as academics, leads to positive outcomes in other areas as well.

Alternative schools are becoming a popular solution to providing a restorative atmosphere where children can heal from past experiences. One example is the CSF Buxmont school. Students at this school are notorius truancy and other behavioral problems. This case study uses testimony from the students themselves to draw its conclusions. Within the pages of the yearbook, the students are asked to tell about their experiences. Many students at Buxmont disliked school before going there. It was the positive attitude of the students and staff, as well as the feeling that they belonged to one big happy family that made the difference in the lives of these children. Many of them reported that they actually enjoyed and looked forward to going to school after transferring to Buxmont ("Learning Respect: Students from a Restorative School," 2007).

CSF Buxmont is termed "restorative" school. The focus of this school is to transform children who have behavioral, emotional, and other issues. Many of them have truancy issues and are on the verge of becoming another drop out statistic. Buxmont has a reputation for transforming at-risk students into success stories. They do this, not through punishment and control, but through creating a positive atmosphere, and fostering relationships. This positive approach is a prime example of the supremacy of positive methods over controlling, authoritative measures.

Regardless of the existence of contributing factors that placed the child at-risk, the methods used by Buxmont transform students into high achievers and children who love to go to school. They use methods are derived from recent motivational research. Their program stands up to empirical testing as an example that demonstrates that truant children and others with problems can turn around, if they are provided a supportive atmosphere in which to do so.

An examination of the methods used at Buxmont could be used a model for the development of similar programs across the country, in addition, the methods could also be integrated into school systems across the country to increase positive attitudes towards school and to increase academic performance. What makes Buxmont unique is that it motivates children to strive for success, rather than attempting to compel them through control and restriction. CSF Buxmont is a prime example of the theoretical underpinnings of this study at work.

Bridging the Gap between the Criminal Justice System and School Counselors

There is considerable research into the effectiveness of the criminal justice system and its effect on youth. Truancy is defined as one of the top 10 educational problems in the United

States. It is also considered a reliable predictor to other delinquent behavior (Zhang, Katsiyannis, & Barrett et al., 2007). Popular societal response to crime is incarceration and this trend is continuing to gain prevalence (Zhang, Katsiyannis, & Barrett et al., 2007). The key reason for this quick reaction is that a connection exists between those that commit crime at an early age and continued criminal activity into adulthood. This assumption is the key reasoning behind early punitive stance taken on truancy. Recent trends in truancy indicate that the court is being used more as an option for combating truancy than in the past (Zhang, Katsiyannis, & Barrett et al., 2007).

This research has examined truancy from a behavioral perspective. Although, much of the discussion has been theoretical and based on the most recent research into motivation and behavior modification, the body of evidence supporting these methods also continues to grow. We have examined new, innovative programs based on these theories and their successes. Overall, programs that address the multitude of problems found in truant and delinquent students and that connect students, parents, and communities had the greatest success (Maccray, 2006). The focus of this study is to examine the impact of a system that used positive reinforcement as its key tool to combat truancy.

However, it will be impossible to change the situation within the schools that still uses the criminal justice system as a means to control truancy. This system will be present in the background of the study and there is nothing that can be done by the research to control this factor. The same children that will be participating in the positive reinforcement program will still be subject to punishment by the existing system due to the current state of the law,

Based on the research findings discussed earlier and the theoretical framework of the research study, the researcher fully supports positive techniques. Current theory suggests that punishment-based systems are counterproductive and that they may actually increase the likelihood of truancy by creating a never ending anxiety loop. The ideal research setting for this study would be in a place where the negative effects of the punitive system could be eliminated. However, this is not possible considering the currently available resources. Therefore, the study will have to be conducted in an environment where the imposed positive reinforcement techniques co-exist with the punitive system. The following will discuss the implications of the punitive system, the role of school counselors and the impact that these factors may have on the outcome of the study.

Despite the number of existing studies from earlier research, numerous studies continue to focus on trends, the identification of risk categories and demographic factors that contribute to truancy. The outcome of these studies will be the ability to target a new group of students that are at-risk for truancy based on general categorical information, rather than by examining the individual risk factors of the student and helping them to resolve them. This generalized approach is not in alignment with current theory on motivation, which states that one has to consider the balance of risk-factors, against protective factors. When the problem deals with human behavioral issues, it is difficult to predict future actions with any degree of accuracy.

One example of such a study was conducted by Garrison (2006). This study involved general trends and patterns over a three-year period. The research found that the number of truancy cases increased 95% between fifth and sixth grade. There was a 76% increase in the number of truancies between eighth and ninth grade. An 87% increase occurred between ten and eleven years old, and a 68% increase occurred between thirteen and fourteen years of age. This study demonstrated that truancy rates are high throughout the adolescent years. The research postulated that truancy prevention needs to focus on key transition points between the fifth and sixth grade, and again during the transition to the eighth grade. This study demonstrated general trends and identified key critical periods during the school career. This study supports the importance of the Middle School Years and the selection for the age and grade level of the study participants. However, it continues to focus on macro-level statistics, rather than solutions, which may or may not apply to any individual student.

The school counselor often serves as the intermediary between the student, parents, and the criminal justice system. However, it was found that counselors are often at risk for burnout, particularly those who have been on the job for over ten years (Michael, 2005). This study found that counselors with a high degree of burnout were less effective than those that were fresh in their careers. Counselor burnout may have an impact on truancy rates, as they may not be as effective as they were earlier in their careers. The efficacy of the school counselor is an important factor in the ability to effectively offer alternatives and solutions to students with attendance problems.

School health professionals are often asked to evaluate youths who miss school, or attempt to miss school. Few recommendations are available to help school health professional or school counselors in their ability to assess truancy behavior (Kearney & Benasheb, 2008). The school health professional is often not involved in cases of absenteeism that involve legitimate excuses, such as illness, or chronic conditions such as asthmas, cancer, or Crohn's disease. However, they do become involved in the evaluation of school refusal behavior, which is truancy, or the refusal to come to school.

School refusal behavior can be linked to a number of emotional and psychological disorders. It is the job of the school health professional to determine if there is really something wrong, or if the actions are simply externalizing problems such as defiance or noncompliance (Kearney & Benasheb, 2008). In some cases, distinguishing real health issues from behavioral issues can be difficult. The school health professional may recommend cognitive behavioral therapy as a first-line intervention. This strategy can often eliminate the unwanted behavior without any further interventions (Kearney & Benasheb, 2008).

Recently, there has been an emphasis on developing programs to help students at-risk remain in school and to improve attendance. One of these programs is Check and Connect. This program is characterized by seven key elements: (1) routine monitoring of alterable indicators of engagement, (2) individualized and timely intervention, (3) relationship building, (4) persistence plus, (5) following mobile students from school to school, (6) problem-solving, and (7) promoting affiliation with school and learning (Sinclair, Christenson, & Thurlow, 2005). Sinclair and associates found this program to be highly effective in preventing drop out among at-risk students with emotional and learning disabilities. Programs such as this emphasize the need for effective motivationally relevant classroom interventions to prevent truancy.

The most effective approaches to resolving school attendance issues are those methods that take a comprehensive approach that involves as partnership between students, educators, parents, and community partners (Epstein & Sheldon, 2002). The GEAR UP program stands as an excellent example of the multi-faceted approach that is necessary to curb school truancy and behavioral problems (Yampolskaya, Massey, & Greenbaum, 2006). Another example that represents a success story was a partnership program that began in a Kansas community. One of the key characteristics that made the program a success was early intervention and contact with the parents as soon as a problem is noticed. The school, student and parents worked on the problem together (Sheverbush, Smith, & DeGruson, 2000). Counseling and in-school incentives are often the first line of defense when truancy goes beyond the extent allowed by law. One such example is Project Transition, which targets girls and boys in the Milwaukee Public school system (Sykes, 2003).

The most important finding of the research to this point, is that the issue is highly complex, Resolving one facet of the issue will not necessarily solve the entire problem. However, attention to one major area can lead to improvements in other areas, having the overall affect of improving attendance and school participation. The most important finding of the literature review thus far is that simply adding more punishment and ridicule is not likely to resolve the problems. It will take a multi-faceted approach and cooperation between the students, parents, and the schools to result in and improved outcome and reduction in truancy rates.

Experimental Design and the Problem of Truancy

Studies were found that used an incentive program for attendance. However, the results of these programs received mixed results with varying degrees of success in reducing truancy (Gerrard, Burhans, & Fair, 2003). The proposed research study is a rewards/incentives-based study. However, it differs from those conducted earlier due to the manner in which points are distributed, in the studies mentioned by Gerrard and associates, the student had to get perfect or near perfect attendance to receive the prize. This goal may not appear to be achievable for some students, or the goal seems too far in the future. This may have been a key factor in the failure of some of these incentive programs.

The research design for this study involves a different type of incentive program where the student decides when they wish to receive their reward, and which reward they will receive. They can either receive a quick, but small reward for attendance points, or they can save them for a larger goal. It is up to the student to decide. The flexibility in this rewards system accounts for differences in student motivational styles. Based on this factor, it can be expected that the results of the reward/incentive program under study will demonstrate more positive results than those studied in the past.

In Chapter 1, we discussed the impact of truancy laws on the ability to measure truancy. Laws and legal definitions impact the number of students hat are considered truant. For instance, in states that have lower ages of emancipation, fewer students may be considered truant than in states that have higher mandatory compulsory education laws. However, in addition to differences in the laws of individual states, there are also differences in the execution of these laws that will have an affect on truancy rates and actual response to the test condition.

One example of such as case is Florida Law, in Florida, the compulsory education age is 18, but students that have reached the age of 16 can terminate education with the permission of their parents (Marion County Public Schools, 2009). . These types of situations can account for differences in overall truancy rates between various states. The sample size of those that are supposed to go to school, with those that are truant is different in these cases.

However, the wording and interpretation of truancy law is also problematic for research purposes. The wording of Florida law will be used as an example. Florida law states that, "A student who has 15 or more unexcused absences within 90 calendar days with or without the knowledge or consent of the student's parent or guardian, and who is subject to compulsory school attendance is a habitual truant" (Mario Country Public Schools, 2009). The problem with this wording is that it does not define what constitutes an excused absence, the local school districts are allowed to set their own rules as to what constitutes an excused absence. For instance, in some districts, parental call off for illness is enough, while in others, an excused absence will require a doctor's excuse. In some cases, even those with a doctor's excuse are counted as unexcused if the school does not feel that it was a valid medical reason.

The focus of truancy is on the law and involvement in the criminal justice system. However, the problem still remains of when to call a student "truant." In Florida, truancy must occur for 15 days within a 90 day period. This contrasts sharply with Arizona's definition of truancy, which considers the child to be truant for missing even one class period during the school day. Arizona also defines truancy as absent for only five days during the entire school year (Christie, 2006). California, as student must be absent for three full days in one school year. Whereas in Colorado four unexcused absences in one month or 10 unexcused absences during the year constitute truancy (Christie, 2006). These differences in definition have a dramatic impact on truancy rates. It is not known if these definitions influenced reporting of truancy rates in the studies examined in the literature review. It is possible that schools that reported higher truancy rates have stricter laws, causing more children to be considered truant than in states where the definition is more lenient.

Punishment for truancy also differs significantly among various states. Virginia uses the use of contempt power in the enforcement of compulsory school attendance. Under this legal framework, the court has the right to enforce treatment prescriptions and counseling for both the child and the parent (Christie, 2006). In Louisiana, the penalty for parents of truant children was raised to a class 3 misdemeanor for aiding and abetting (Christie, 2006). Idaho also considers the parent of a child to be guilty of a misdemeanor if their child is convicted of truancy (Christie, 2006).

These differences make it questionable as to whether truancy laws target those for which it was intended. In cases where parents disagree with an unexcused absence, it creates distance between the parents and schools, rather than forging a partnership. Issues such as this affect the outcome of truancy studies and interventions on a regular basis and it cannot be determined if this will have an effect on the truancy rates for the selected schools. In some cases, higher truancy rates may be due to a stricter interpretation of the definition of truancy by a particular school district.

Now we have an overview of the criminal justice answer to the problem. However, regardless of the definition of when a child becomes truant or the punishment that they or their parents receive. Increases in legal toughness on truancy has hardly been effective in reducing truancy. We discussed the potential for use of the criminal justice system to increase the potential, rather than decrease it. Several studies addressed this issue. It was found that the adolescent female offender is more likely to have been sexually or physically abused at some point, which was directly connected to the truancy (Rodney & Mupier, 2005).

The most common tactic of authorities in relation to students with behavioral difficulties is to increase control over the students. This is the most common tactic used by the criminal justice system in dealing with truant juveniles and their parents. However, it has been found that increased control produces an equal and opposite reaction from the controllee. This equal and opposite reaction is referred to as "countercontrol." Control is a different issue from motivation the motivated person does something because they have a desire to do it. The action fills some need and they feel that they will benefit from the action (Carey & Bourbon, 2006)..

Control differs from motivation in that the person feels compelled to perform an action, but they may not like it. The action may be against their wishes and desires. In the case of an adolescent, it is likely that they will put up some form of resistance to the control measures. This is why involvement with authority figures and the juvenile justice system can make matters worse instead of better (Carey & Bourbon, 2006). The student may see the deviant behavior as a means to gain control over the authority figure. Countercontrol can jeopardize an intervention program, thus resulting in an increase in behavior, rather than a decrease in behavior.

The control measures instituted by the juvenile justice system are not based on the most recent research into truancy and behavioral problems. They do not consider countercontrol or motivational theory. Many of the practices and remedies for truancy have changed little since the Victorian era. These methods are not based on a solid theoretical foundation and are likely to do more harm than good in the end.

School counselors only have limited powers in the truancy situation. They can attempt to intervene with motivation and positive methods to attempt to prevent the youth from become legally truant. However, their abilities are limited and once the child crosses the legal limits for truancy within their state, they must turn the case over to authorities. Once in the hands of the authorities, a power struggle usually ensues. In the end, it is always the child who loses, as they jeopardize their academics, social support network, and increase the likelihood that they will drop out of school.

Summary

This study examined the issue of control vs. motivation to attend school. The proposed research study will focus on motivating the student to attend school, rather than focusing on measures that result in a power struggle. The literature review explored the historical roots of the issue of truancy. It explored the control and authority-based methods that continue to dominate attempts at resolving the issues. However, if one looks to modern theoretical stances on behavioral issues and motivation, it becomes apparent that this control-based method is antiquated and in need of a serious update. Research supports methods that rely on positive motivational techniques and relationship building as the key method for changing truant behavior and encouraging a more positive attitude towards school.

If one looks to modern theory, it becomes apparent that change must come from within the student. They must feel a sense of desire to succeed. They must feel capable of succeeding and they must raise their self-esteem. The only way to accomplish these three tasks is to use a method other than control as the change mechanism. The literature review highlights the need for a change in the way truants are dealt with.

In an assessment of what works and what does not, it was found that building strong relationships with students that are based on trust and understanding are the best strategy (Gerrard, Burhans, & Fair, 2003). The study went on to suggest that continual contact with parents was also an essential part of the mix. Strong, clear attendance policies and intensive school interventions were also cited as important to the process (Gerrard, Burhans, & Fair, 2003). The study concluded that long-term strategies, rather than one-time efforts that only target high-risk students were the most effective means to combat truancy.

The Gerrard, Burhans, & Fair (2003) study divided strategies into categories. The above strategies were found to be the most effective in terms of reducing truancy. Strategies that had inconclusive results were rewards and/or incentives for attendance. Study results were mixed for this group of studies. Peer groups counseling also had mixed results, as did probation officers devoted to truancy cases (Gerrard, Burhans, & Fair, 2003).

Of these methods, the Gerard and associates study found that several methods for curbing truancy had no affect on truancy rates. The introduction of school uniforms had little effect on truancy rates. Financial sanctions against families who use TANF also had little affect. The latter, tends to discriminate against an already at-risk group. Creating more problems for them is not likely to resolve the issue.

Several strategies explored by Gerrard and associates were mention and that have been put into place, were never tested. One of these examples is publicizing good attendance, such as by banner at school or at an assembly. The problem with this method was that it only targeted students with minor attendance problems, not those with chronic truancy problems. In addition, it appears that radio or newspaper mention has a greater effect than announcement within the school environment (Gerrard, Burhans, & Fair, 2003). More academic research into this technique is necessary in order to determine its effectiveness.

Other methods that have been tried, but not studied empirically, include make-up work for all absentees, regardless of the reason. Involving truants in extracurricular activities has also been tried but not tested. However, it may be mention that this method does have a sound theoretical basis, according to the theory discovered in this research study. Gerrard and associates also found that teacher activities such as teacher attention to setting a good attendance example and creating a pleasant classroom environment. Another technique that has been only marginally tested is mailing letters to parents at different stages of a child's truancy. Gerrard and associates provided an excellent summary of the state of research into the area of truancy. Their findings agree with the discoveries made during this literature review as well.

Crestwell (2008) discusses three approaches to research design, quantitative,, qualitative, and mixed method, or hybrid design. The most important factors in quantitative design is that it meets three criteria. It must be externally developed, independent, reliable and valid (Fashola, 2004). Recent interest in qualitative methods a movement towards a desire for abstraction and deeper understanding, rather than definitive results (Davidson, 2007). Quantitative methods answer the question of "what" happened, or "whether or not something happened at all." However, if one wishes to go beyond the surface of an issue, qualitative methods are necessary. Qualitative methods are more holistic than quantitative methods. Quantitative methods tend to focus on only one detail of the problem (Langhout, 2003).

An examination of methods used to study the problem of truancy reveals that the primary method for studying the topic is a quantitative approach, the primary motive behind research into this topic area is to understand the affect of a certain intervention or factor on truancy rates. This type of research question calls for numerical data that can be compared to previous data in order to detect any changes due to the intervention or approach being tested. A small number of studies used case study methods. The subject of these case studies ranged from single students to school-wide case studies. School-wide case studies were the most prevalent, particularly in relation to a particular intervention strategy.

Qualitative methods were seldom used for study of this research topic. This is largely due to the need for answers as to whether the numerical data had been affected by the intervention or other factor being studied. Quantitative methods were far more prevalent than case study or qualitative methods for study of this topic. Although the ultimate goal of research into truancy lies in the numbers, the usefulness of the information is lacking due to the inability to dig deeper into the issue.

It was the need for both numerical data to support the effectiveness of the new rewards program and a desire to gain an understanding of the reasons for the trends that are behind changes in truancy rates. This was the key reason for choosing a mixed method approach to the research topic. The numerical data is necessary to determine if the rewards approach passes the test of effectiveness, but this limited information does not go far enough in explaining the reasons behind the trends. The survey will provide deeper insight into the topic at hand. An examination of existing literature methods indicates that this is a unique research approach inside this particular subject area. It will help to tie results to the development of a better theoretical approach to program development in the future.

CHAPTER 3. METHODOLOGY

Introduction

The literature review outlined the necessity of finding new methods to resolve the problem of truancy in U.S. schools. It outlined the inconsistencies in the current system and provided alternatives that use positive reinforcement rather than negative reinforcement. In the first chapter, it was found that confounding variables may affect the ability to draw meaningful conclusions regarding the efficacy of the chosen truancy reduction program. This chapter will discuss the means to lessen the impact of these variables on the research study.

Researcher's Philosophy

The philosophy of the researcher has a direct impact on the ability of the study to achieve its intended goal. This philosophy of the researcher, in this study, is based on the need to find a new approach to an old problem. Truancy is an important issue for the researcher. Truancy has an impact on many aspects of the student's future and on the community in which they live. Those who do not graduate from high school, or who do not succeed academically have limited opportunities in the world around them. They have greatly reduced chances of becoming successful and having an income that is able to sustain them,

The social impact of truancy on a macro-level is a concern for society as whole. Truancy sets the person up for failure in life. Although, it is unfair to make generalizations and apply them to individual cases, generalizations are often necessary in order to see the big picture and the true impact that truancy has on society. Truancy affects individuals by reducing their chances for success in life. However, this also affects society as well. The problem goes beyond individual outcomes and branches into the well-being of society as a whole.

Truancy increases the chances that a student will drop out all together at an early age. There are many reasons for the increased drop out rate. However, the philosophy behind this research and the research design are based on the overall impact of these factors. For instance, those that are frequently truant have an increased risk for drop out, are more likely to have financial difficulties that lead to other negative societal impact. They are more likely to turn to crime to make ends meet. They are more likely to need social assistance or turn to substance abuse. Their prospects in life are limited by truancy in school. Truancy can be considered the gateway to a lifelong relationship with social problems. This reasoning is the sole driving force behind the researcher's involvement in the topic area.

In terms of research design, there are many alternatives that could be used for this research study. One method would be to compare truancy rates in schools that have already implemented various tactics to reduce the number of truancy cases in their schools. However, the problems discussed earlier concerning confounding variables makes this the least favorite option for research design.

Another potential research design would be to take baseline measurements of truancy rates and then apply some remedy to the group. Data would be collected following the method applied and would be compared to that prior to the research study. This method was chosen as it allowed the comparison of apples to apples. However, the researcher also felt that comparison between school districts would help to level the affects of differences between school systems and cultures.

The research philosophy is not guided by the opinions of the researcher, but it by the conditions discovered through the course of the research thus far. The research philosophy behind this study design favors the adaptability of the research design through the use of combined research methodologies. Few circumstances call for the adherence of a single research method. All of them have their strengths and weaknesses. Choosing a combined research methodology allows the researcher to take what is most applicable to the particular research scenario.

Research Design Guide or Model

The research design for this study was inspired as much by what not available as much as what was available through the literature review. Research methods into this study area included numerous case studies, and research designs that involved quantitative studies regarding various components of the negative consequence approach. The research was plagued by studies that were influenced by confounding variables and findings that were only marginally significant. The goal of this research design is to provide a means to examine the issue in a manner that eliminates confounding variables and the provides a clearly significant result.

One of the factors that was revealed during the literature review was that a lack of statistics regarding truancy was missing from the school database. This task is paramount to the ability of the researcher to determine if the proposed program produces statistically significant results. Therefore, this research design will have two separate components, the first phase will simply be to establish a baseline for truancy rates in the selected school systems. The second phase will involve the actual testing phase.

Data collected during the baseline establishment phase will be compared to that in the testing phase. The difference in truancy rates will be used to determine if the program was a success or failure in the reduction of truancy in the given school systems. Comparative data was a key missing element in the studies that were found in the literature review. Since, it is difficult to find credible historical data in many school districts, the research design will have to take this into account. Collecting data to establish a baseline will resolve this issue. Not only will the key information be provide, it will be collected in a uniform manner according to the protocols set by the research methodology.

The research design for this study was inspired by the mistakes of the past. As the mistakes of past research became apparent, it became obvious that a new research design needed to be devised for study of this topic area. The research design for this study will address many of the issues that became apparent in other research found during the previous literature review. Although, research of the past will serve as a guide for the design of this research, there are still factors that are beyond control of the researcher. In these cases, the research will attempt to limit their impact on the results.

Research Design Strategy

This research design will use a mixed method approach to explore the research hypothesis and the research questions. One could devise a straight-forward quantitative research method that addresses the research hypothesis. However, such as method would only answer the very basic question of if the proposed program has an effect on truancy. While, this would serve the purposes of this research study, it would add little to the body of knowledge about the subject.

In order to add to the body of research that currently exists regarding truancy and methods to improve attendance, more in-depth knowledge is desired than the pre-test/program/post-test method would provide. In order to learn more about the causes and influences that affect truancy a survey will be administered to a random sample of middle school systems in the districts that are represented. This survey will ask students about their feelings about several areas of their life that have been demonstrated to have an affect on truancy rates in the past. This survey will be administered prior to conduct of the program and then again to the same students after the program.

Results of the student surveys will provide an in-depth look at the student's reasons for either skipping or attending school. The survey will place the results of the truancy-rate portion of the study in perspective. The results of the survey will be more likely to show patterns that will provide clues as to the reasons behind the numbers. This information will be useful in the design of both future research projects and new programs to help promote school attendance.

The research will use an experimental design approach that compares pre-test truancy rates with truancy rates after implementation of the incentive points program. Although, this mixed method approach will mean more work in terms of data collection and analysis, it is necessary in order to not only answer the central research question, but to make the information useful in the future. Truancy is a serious issue that affects the lives of students and the community in which they live. Therefore, any information that provides a deeper level of understanding will be of the greatest benefit to this area of study.

Although these two research methods will run simultaneously, they will be treated as separate in terms of data analysis and interpretation. In the end, the results of the two research methods will be compared to see if they support or invalidate each other. It is expected that the results of the survey will support the results of the data regarding truancy rates. The results of the survey will be analyzed using statistical methods, but they will be interpreted for the qualitative content in relation to data from the alternative research method. This research methodology not only examines the research hypothesis, it provides an in-depth look at the reasons for the results.

Sampling Design and Setting

To answer the research questions and satisfy the conditions of the central hypothesis, the research design consists of two separate phases. The first phase involves data collection that constitutes numerical data containing the actual incidence of truancy in the school. School personnel will be asked to keep track of the actual number of truancy cases for a 4-month period during the school year. They will be asked to record all instances of truancy within the prescribed time period. They will consider any truancy case, regardless of the severity of the charges or the final outcome. They will not consider the disciplinary action taken, only that the truancy occurred. This period will constitute the baseline data that will be used for comparison to the test condition.

The second portion of this phase of the study involves application of the positive reinforcement through the introduction of an incentive program. In this incentive program, the students receive five incentive points every day, just for coming to school. If they are tardy or leave early, they only receive 2 points. Excused absences will receive no points. The only way to receive points is to be sitting in class. It is recognized that there are legitimate reasons for missing school. However, the reward points may cut down on the number of "tummy aches" that suddenly get better once the student calls off.

Those who are truant will still receive the same consequences as they did in the past. This is state law and there is no way to circumvent the law for purposes of the study. However, the introduction of the incentive points for attendance will add another dimension to the program that is already in place. The purpose of the incentives program is to encourage children to come to school and participate.

Students will receive incentive points that they can accrue, similar to a bank account. In essence, they are getting "paid" to come to school. The students will be provided a catalog with items that can be purchased for a certain number of points. Items will range from pencils and paper, to backpacks, clothing items to ipods and cds. Student input will be solicited to determine what items they really want and what would motivate them the most. Budget may also be a factor in the item selection. The larger items will obviously have a higher price and the student will have to save and work for them. Smaller items will be easier to get.

This is to allow for differences in student preferences and habits. Some students will be more highly motivated by small frequent rewards, while others will be motivated by the chance to save and get something big. Pricing will be set such that the students really have to work to earn enough points for purchases. For instance, they will have to have perfect attendance for at least a month to get even a small item. A larger item will take an entire school year to get. Otherwise, the budget would be a limiting factor in continuation of the program. This program could be scaled down for research purposes in terms of the cost of the items provided. The test period will be for 4 months, to provide a fair comparison to truancy baseline data collected during the first part of the research study.

This portion of the study will examine only the truancy rate, without providing the reasons for the changes in truancy. This data will tell the researcher if the program had an effect on the truancy rate in the school systems examined. However, it will not provide in-depth information about the reasons behind the truancy rates. Therefore, a survey will be administered to 50 students from each school to determine if external factors are behind the changes in truancy rates. The test will examine confounding factors that were discovered during the literature review, such as home environment, bullying, a sense of danger either on the way to and from school, or at school, and other factors that were identified as having an impact on truancy. The survey will also examine the perceived impact of the reinforcement program on their willingness and likelihood of striving for improved school attendance. The survey will help to place the numerical data collected in its proper perspective in terms of its impact on truancy rates during the study.

The numerical data that simply tracks the incidence of truancy over a four-month period will use the entire 7th and 8th grade student population. This portion of the study will examine 100% of the student population. However, it is impractical due to time constraints to sample 100% of the student population in the survey portion of the study. Taking into account the typical classroom size and the need to sample a representative portion of the student population, it was decided that 50 students from each grade in each school surveyed will be used as the final population size.

Selection of participants for the survey portion of the study will be chosen randomly. All of the students in each grade will be assigned a number. A random number generator will be used to choose the students form each school and grade to participate in the survey. The same students chosen for the pre-test will also take the post-test. Letters will be sent out to chosen the parents of chosen students asking them for permission for their child to participate. If a number of parent either do not return the permission or choose not to allow their children to participate, further students will be chosen from the lottery and additional letters sent out. This process will continue until the desired number of participants has been reached for each grade level for each particular school. No exclusionary or inclusion criteria will be used to select the sample population, other than that they are enrolled in the 7th or 8th grade in one of the selected schools.

The selected student population for the survey will be given the survey at the convenience of the school system and their classroom teacher. The random subject selection method chosen for this research will provide the most representative opinions of the student population. Given the average number of students in the particular classroom, this sample technique is expected to reach approximately 25% of the student population. This is considered to be a sufficient number to be representative of the student population. Once the second survey has been administered and the test period has ended, all data will be forwarded to the researcher for analysis.

Measures

For the numerical portion of the study, truancy rates will serve as the primary measure. Truancy rates will be calculated in terms of raw number of days absent during the testing period. The purpose of this portion of the study is to determine if truancy rates increase or decrease during the test period. Changes in truancy rates will be measured in terms of the number of students absent X the number of days absent per student/100. This will provide a truancy index for the school. This number will be used to compare truancy prior to institution of the program and after institution of the program. The truancy index will be used as the primary means of comparison between grades and school districts.

The survey questionnaire will serve as the second measure that is used in this research project. Survey questions will serve as the second measurement instrument used in this study. Responses to the survey will serve as the measurement instrument for the research questions. The survey will be use questions that can easily be numerically interpreted. The results will be expressed as a frequency distribution of the entire research population. This approach will provide a measurement instrument that can be compared to the numerical data contained in the truancy score.

Data Collection Procedures

Data collection will be conducted with the assistance of school personnel and the support of school administration. School personnel will use an excel spreadsheet, provided by the researcher to track the number of absences, unexcused absences, excused absences, excused tardy, and unexcused tardy episodes among 7th and 8th graders during the dates of the test period. The first period will begin at a selected date in September and will run until a selected date in December. The second tracking session will begin sometime in January and will run until sometime in April. The test period for data tracking will be 120 days in length. The school will be able to use the excel spreadsheet as a gift to help them track truancy and keep better attendance data in the future, which was a major issue in this research study.

Survey data will be collected via the school personnel as well. The survey data will be collected by school personnel as well. Surveys will be dropped off with the school secretary who will make certain that they are distributed to a list of selected students. The students will take the survey and return it to the school secretary. The original surveys will be collected and held by the researcher.

The survey will be administered within the first week of the initial data collection period. It will be administered within 1 week of the beginning of the data collection period for truancy. At the end of the data collection period, this same survey instrument will be administered to the same students again. This survey will be administered and given to the researcher for analysis. Approximately one week prior to the end of the test period, the survey will be administered again to the same group of students selected for the pretest. All data will be analyzed and summarized using an excel spreadsheet for comparison between the conditions prior to the Field Testing/Pilot Testing

This study is extensive and must be carried out over the course of 8 months. In addition, this research breaks new ground, both in terms of the truancy deterrent method used and the mixed method approach used for the research method. Therefore, a pilot study would be in order prior to the investment of the time and resources necessary for the final research study. This will allow the research to eliminate unforeseen circumstances that may affect the outcome of the survey study.

The pilot study will be conducted identical to the full-scale research study, except that it will only use a sample population of 10 student from 3 different schools. It will be conducted over a one month time period, using the same research method as the final research study. The first two weeks will consist of baseline truancy level testing and administration of the pre-test. The second two weeks will consist of administration of the incentive program, collection of test data and administration of the post-test.

The pilot study will be identical to the full-scale research study in every way, except for the time span of the research project and certain changes in prize levels., Prizes for the pilot study will be smaller in size than those for the full scale study. Using the prize price and point system would mean that students would not have the means to start earning prized and reaping the benefits. However, it would be unrealistic to give out big prizes, like ipods for meeting a one month attendance goal.