Verification of Interpretation -- Trustworthiness Credibility Transferability

Verification of Interpretation -- Trustworthiness

Credibility

Transferability

Dependability and Confirmability

Advanced Qualitative Research Methods

The role of research methods knowledge and its benefits for social research is an area of debate and confusion since the beginning of the profession's inception (Austin, 1983). Central to this understanding is the broader context of social research as new found study areas. In social research, the knowledge of research methods helps in selecting appropriate method for a particular area of research as well the knowledge of strengths and weaknesses of particular methods can lead a researcher to choose combine methods and adopt strategies to address the weaknesses of a particular method. In this research report the author intends to describe advanced qualitative research method, theory, practical implications, ethical consideration as well as types of advances research methods, the importance and significance of employing qualitative research methods, the sampling procedures and data collection and analysis method. The study will help and influence the researchers the way to critically assess the information received from sources, research topics.

What is Research?

Research, as a source of knowledge, has many meaning today; particularly, research on educational practice. According to Borg and Gall (1989); "the purpose of educational research is to discover new knowledge about teaching, learning, administration and other educational phenomena" (p.15). Keeping the purpose of educational research in mind how is it that an educational researcher decides which process or method of inquiry to use in obtaining knowledge about educational phenomena? Normally, the traditional scientific method is used to discover new phenomena, but Borg and Gall (1989) mention that several developments have led educational researcher to question those methods and techniques:

One of these developments has been new ideas about the nature of scientific inquiry set forth by philosophers of science such as Thomas Kuhn. Another development was the increasing interest of educational researcher in the methods of scientific inquiry used in disciplines other than psychology. Another development was the increasing interest of educational researchers, with encouragement from practitioners, in phenomena not easily studied using traditional research methodology. (p.16)

These developments have brought the re-examination of the nature of scientific inquiry by educational researchers. According to Mannoia (1980), the activity of science is not some secret set of rules which, when properly applied, automatically and mechanically produce theories; but, it does involve a certain mechanical character and it does include methodical attention to observations in seeing the problems and doing experiments. He adds that progress in science means choosing, on occasion, between competing, alternative theories. Mannoia (1980) describes the controversy which lies at the heart of scientific development. It is not a conflict of objective reason vs. dogmatic faith, but rather a conflict of one set of assumptions with another in an arena of powerful personal and social factors. For much of the twentieth century, a social and educational inquiry was, and, in many institutions, is still, based on developments in the natural sciences.

According to Smith (1993), researchers in the social sciences and education may be members of any number of groups with strong views on what constitutes research. Some social scientists believe a research methodology is considered rigorous if it is suited to the problem under analysis, is implemented with objectivity, allows replication by other social scientists, and contributes to the theory development process of social science. Many in the empiricist and post empiricist camps would agree with that statement. But, in recent years, the development of solutions for pressing social needs has brought about the use of alternative theoretical paradigms, particularly critical theory

The importance of Methodology in Research

A research methodology is a model, which engages a theory which offers guiding principle for a particular research plan in the context of a specirid philosophy. Simply we can say that, methodology is an explanation of model into research language and plainly shows how the research can be completed in a professional manner. Methods refer to the tools required by researchers to collect primary data. "Methods are needed because they provide the instructions to produce a complete piece of research. Decisions have to be made about which methods are best for particular purposes and then data collecting instruments must be designed to do the research" (Bell, 1997, p 33).

The widely held belief about research methods is exists that methods courses should retain a singular focus on social studies methods, such as "inquiry, immersion, small group discussion, and problem solving, cooperative learning, simulation, role playing, storytelling, guided fantasy, modelling, demonstration, historical investigation, research, creating, and reflecting" (Fresch 2003, p. 70).

Research Design

"A research design is simply the design or plan for a study used as a guide in collecting and analyzing data. It is the blue print that is followed in completing a study" (Churchill, 1988, p 108). Zikmund (2000, p 65) defined research design as "a master plan that specifies the methods and procedures for collecting and analyzing needed information." (p 65)

Creswell (2009) argue that researchers should make clear the well-built theoretical ideas they hold, according to him, "this disclosure helps to explain their choice of research method" (p. 5).

Usually researchers are concerned largely with finding solutions to the research problems, for thus they need to utilize a pragmatic theoretical framework. Pragmatists are most concerned with "what works" and, to them, the most important aspect of the research study is to "understand the problem; therefore pragmatic researchers often use a variety of research methods to achieve this goal" (Creswell, 2003, p. 11). Quantitative research method engages experiential explanation, resolutions, dimensions and theory confirmation (Creswell, 2009). Holton and Burnett (2005) pointed out that "one of the strong points of quantitative research method is its capability to give inferable conclusion from a small representative sample" (p. 32).

According to Creswell (2003) "pragmatism opens the door to multiple methods, different world views and different assumptions, as well as to different forms of data collection and analysis in the mixed methods study" (p. 12). According to him, "pragmatism provides a basis for the following knowledge claims. Pragmatism is not committed to any one system of philosophy and reality; therefore, it is useful to draw on both qualitative and quantitative methodologies. Researchers are free to choose the methods, techniques, and procedures of research that best meet their needs and purpose. Pragmatists do not see the world as an absolute unity, thus a mixed methods design is more useful than subscribing to only one methodology. Truth is what works at the time; it is not based in a strict dualism between the mind and a reality completely independent of the mind. Pragmatic researchers look to what and how to research based on its intended consequences, where they want to go with it. Research always occurs in social, historical, political, and other contexts, therefore mixed-methods designs may incorporate a theoretical lens that is reflexive of social justice and political aims; and Pragmatists believe that there is a need to stop asking questions about reality and the laws of nature." (2003, p. 12-13)

Qualitative Research

Qualitative research as simply defined by Carspecken (1996), "investigates human phenomena that do not lend themselves, by their very nature, to quantitative techniques" (p.3). there are many diverse research methods that come under the qualitative umbrella (Denzin & Lincoln, 1994; Eisner & Peshkin, 1990; LeCompte & Preissle 1993; and Willis, 1995). According to Strauss and Corbin (1990), qualitative research is any type of research that constructs those findings that other ways of statistical processes and ways of quantification fail to arrive. The techniques and methods used in advanced qualitative research depend on scrutiny for gathering a genuine set of data about the research issue under study. Qualitative research is different from quantitative research in the context of theoretical fundamentals; primary hypothesises, and research methods. Although metaphors of qualitative research methods given by different authors vary considerably, most writings devoted to qualitative research emphasize participant observation and in-depth interviews. Quantitative methods contrast with qualitative research techniques, in that reliance is placed on the research instrument through which measurements are made. Qualitative research usually consists of three component consist of different analytic or interpretive procedures that are used to arrive at findings or theories. The last component is written and verbal reports.

A comprehensive knowledge of the major doctrine of a research theory, particularly qualitative, is necessary to conduct a good research within that theory. According to Borg and Gall (1989), qualitative research is much more complex to do well than quantitative research because the data collected are usually subjective and main measurement tool for collecting data is the investigator. Therefore, before conducting a qualitative research efficiently, all-embracing training and practice in the methods are necessary. The literature review reveals that qualitative research is often complex and lacks structure which is why appropriate training and practice are important in the transfer of knowledge.

Qualitative research methods are often used when other methods are not available (Bogdan, & Biklen 2003). For example, the sample size of the subject population is very small and statistical methods cannot yield significance, or when there does not appear to be any quantitative data available to answer the question. The level of theory development may also indicate qualitative methods. When advanced theories exist to explain a group of phenomena, relationships and testable hypotheses can be generated and tested through controlled experimentation. Even if there are only focus areas and broad insights into the phenomena, directed assessments, evaluations, and co relational studies can be performed. If there is little to no theory, of it the theory is available is speculative or anecdotal, then descriptive studies are most useful. A useful

Qualitative Methods

Trochim (2002), "a qualitative approach is a general way of thinking about conducting qualitative research. It describes, either explicitly or implicitly, the purpose of the qualitative research, the role of the researcher, the stages of research, and the method of data analysis." According to Conger and Toegel (2002), case study methodology is categorized as a qualitative relatively than a quantitative research approach. Both qualitative and quantitative approaches are legitimate, but their appliance depends on the in general purpose of the research. Quantitative methods are typically one of two types: experiments or surveys. Often, there is a body of literature with defined variables which the quantitative researcher can test. Conger and Toegel noted that quantitative methods are "designed largely to capture a reality that is composed of concrete and objective structures & #8230; and far less effective at capturing interpretive dimensions" (p. 180). Qualitative research is more suitable in a situation where the research problem is not clear and is subject to explanation, the variables are unidentified, and the researcher spotlights on the background that controls the phenomenon (Creswell, 1994). Types of qualitative approaches include case study, ethnography, grounded theory, and phenomenological studies. These approaches often involve interviews, observations, and the study of documents or artefacts that yield both objective and subjective data (Creswell; Dyer, 1995).

Holton and Burnett (2005) stated that "one of the strengths of quantitative research method is its ability to provide inferable conclusion from a small representative sample" (p. 32). According to Rossman and Rallis (2003, p. 180), "in-depth interviewing is the hallmark of qualitative research." It is an opportunity to explore the "participants' worlds" and worldviews by having them share their experiences, ideas and understandings.

On technique is "interview guide approach" in which the researcher has categories and topics he wants to explore but is open to exploring other topics that the participant brings up instead of simply following a prepared set of questions (Rossman & Rallis, 2003, p. 181). "Interviewees were unwilling or uncomfortable sharing all that the interviewer hoped to explore" (Rossman & Rallis, 1998, p. 125).

Focus Group

Another important qualitative method is a focus group discussion. Focus groups are "an interview style designed for small groups" in which the atmosphere is structured to encourage participants to speak openly and freely about their behaviours, attitudes, and opinions (Berg, 2001, p. 111). Focus groups can be excellent opportunities for the participants to feed off of each others' ideas and can result in the exploration of a greater number of ideas and issues than are discussed in one-on-one interviews. Focus group interviews are often held when a "one shot collection" (Berg, 1998, p. 100) of information is necessary. During the focus group discussion researcher should attempt to "encourage discussion and the expression of differing opinions and points-of-view" (Rossman & Rallis, 2003, p. 193). For conducting qualitative research the note that "researchers supplement & #8230; interviewing & #8230; with gathering and analyzing documents produced in the course of everyday events or constructed specifically for the research at hand." (Marshall and Rossman,1999, p. 116)

As defined by Morgan (1997) a focus group is a group interview that relies on interaction between participants to produce data and insights on a topic selected and moderated by the researcher. This group was used as a supplementary source of data upon completion of the other methods of data collection (Morgan, 1997). Focus groups generally contain seven to ten people, but can range in size from four to twelve participants (Marshall & Rossman, 1999).

The choice of a qualitative design is based on Patton's (1990) assertion that the intent of qualitative research is to "provide perspective rather than truth, empirical assessment of local decision makers' theories of action rather than generation and verification of universal theories, and context-bound explorations rather than generalizations" (p. 491).

Case Study

Feagin, Orum, and Sjoberg (1991) defined a case study as "an in-depth, multi-faceted investigation, using qualitative research methods" (p. 2).A case is defined as a "single bounded system or an instance…" (Merriam 1988, p. 153); each participant serves as a specific case. Case studies allow an intensive, holistic, and in depth investigation of each teacher as a unit (Feagin et al. 1991; Merriam 1998; Stake 1995). Merriam's (1998) contention that a case study is more focused on process and context, perhaps the most important factor in the selection of a case study methodology is the Feagin et al. (1991) statement that case studies explore in detail the how and why of specific situations. Yin (1994) added that case studies are not only suitable for answering how, but also what.

Regarding qualitative research, Marshall and Rossman have noted that "there is no such thing as a perfectly designed study" and case studies are no exception to this rule (1999, p. 42). Case studies have a number of limitations; chiefly, a case is one instance of a "single bounded system or an instance…" and not representative of a certain population (Merriam 1988, p. 153). Moreover, case studies rely on descriptive information provided by researchers and participants, leaving room for the loss of important details and differing perceptions. Finally, much of the interpretation in case studies is based on the recollection of past events, and therefore is susceptible to problems inherent to memory.

Interviews

Patton (1990) stated that "qualitative interviewing begins with the assumption that the perspective of others is meaningful, knowable, and able to be made explicit" (p. 278). According to the research topic, interviews are designed to made participants' perspectives explicit by giving them an opportunity to explain themselves and their situations (Spradley 1979). Interviewing is "a powerful way to gain insight into educational issues through understanding the experience of the individuals whose lives constitute education" (Seidman 1991, p. 7).Much of the data generated from interviews as Patton's (1990) stated: "The raw data of interviews are the actual quotations spoken by interviewees. There is no substitute for these data." (p. 347)

Semi-structured as described on Patton's (1990) interview guide approach in which the format, topics, and issues are covered in a specified outline form, and the interviewer determines the order and the wording of each question. The interview guide allows for adjustments of each interview and participant. All interviews are recorded and transcribed by the researcher, and reviewed by the participant for accuracy (Lincoln & Guba 1985).

Surveys

Survey is recognized as the most commonly used means for collecting data in managerial research for exploring the nature, proceedings, and results within organizations that cannot be observed directly (Fowler, 2009; Gall, Gall, & Borg, 2003). As noted by Dillman (2000), the increased acceptance and use of surveys in organizational research has been associated with shifting societal attitudes, advancement in technology, increased emphasis on cost and efficiency, and a better understanding and mitigation of the errors that may be associated with surveys. Fowler (2009) argued that the purpose of survey is to produce statistics that are quantitative or to derive numerical descriptions about some aspects of the population of interest; it involves collecting information by asking questions to a small sample of the population under investigation (p. 1).

Cooper and Schindler (2008) noted that the strength of survey as a data collection instrument is its versatility; a few well-chosen questions can yield information that would otherwise take much more time and effort and a higher cost to gather any other way. Self administered Internet, email, mail and fax surveys administered with a return mechanism provides the added advantage of providing access to otherwise inaccessible participants, lower cost, requiring minimal staff, allowing participants time to think about the questions, appearing more anonymous, and rapid data collection (p. 223).

Cooper and Schindler (2008) described survey as "a measurement process used to collect information during a highly structured interview -- sometimes with human interviewer and other time without" according to them "the goal of survey is to derive comparable data across subsets of the chosen samples so that similarities and differences can be found" (p. 215).

The role of the researcher

The role of researcher in any qualitative study is to capture the reality and/or contexts the research subject inhabits. The researcher should become the human instrument for data collection and interpretation by having a theoretical sensitivity that creates an awareness of the subtleties of the data being collected and analyzed (Lincoln & Guba 1985). This theoretical sensitivity is demonstrated by the researcher's insights and ability to derive meaning from the data.

Data Collection Methods

In qualitative methods data sources include interviews, explanations of social studies methods teaching, and document examination. This approach is based on Patton's (1990) belief that "[q]ualitative methods consist of three kinds of data collection: (1) in-depth, open-ended interviews; (2) direct observation; and (3) written documents" (p. 10). All of these sources are used to create a comprehensive description of the participants and their beliefs. Yin's (1994) suggested using multiple sources of data when constructing case studies in order to increase the reliability of the data and provide multiple examples of the participants' approach to the topics of interest. Finally, interviews allow the participants to explain and describe their beliefs about methods instruction and the issues they encountered during the process, as well as provide a frame of reference for the observations of methods instructors

A large proportion of the data analyzed is generated from at least two interviews with each participant lasting approximately 60-90 minutes, based on Patton's (1990) belief that "[d]irect quotations are the basic source of raw data in qualitative inquiry" (p. 24). The first interview provides data about the participant's personal and professional background and his or her beliefs about teaching. The second and any follow-up interviews are based on information from previous interviews and observations. The interviews are semi-structured based on Patton's (1990) interview guide approach, in which the format, topics, and issues are covered in a specified outline form and the interviewer determines the order and the wording of each question. The interview guide approach allows for adjustments to the particularities of each interview and/or participant. Interviews are audio taped and transcribed. The interview questions reflect the major areas of interest in any specific study..

Initial Selection Decisions and Sampling Procedures

The first step of the research is selection of method and population of interest. Marshall and Rossman (1999, p. 80-81) state that, "the research design section of a proposal should contain plans for negotiating access to the site and/or participants through formal and informal gatekeepers in an organization."

There are a variety of sampling methodologies that can be used depending on the research purpose. Sampling is the population to be surveyed or interviewed for a specific research purpose. For a large population random sampling procedures are used to select participants. According to Gall, Borg, and Gall (1997, p. 223), a simple random sample is a "sample selected from a population by a process that provides every sample of a given size an equal probability of being selected" (italics in original).

Holton & Burnett (2005) pointed out that a researchers' objective behind collecting data is usually to explore and understand a specific trend in a sample group, and to make conclusions about a broader group represented by that specific sample group. Fowler (2009) noted that how well a sample represents a population is a factor of the sample frame, the sample size, and the selection procedure

Participants

There is a criterion sampling for selection of participants of study according to the research question as Patton stated "to review and study all cases that meet some predetermined criterion of importance" (Patton 1990, p. 176). Before conducting interviews the researcher needs to secure institutional permission in case of an educational study.

Ethical Considerations

Creswell (2009) argued that researchers should foresee any ethical matters that may occur during the course of their research. He added that "researchers should protect their research participants, develop trust with them, adhere to measures that would promote integrity, guard against misconduct and impropriety" (p. 89). For conducting any study in which opinions of a group of people is involved, the research should ensure: "That the research was designed to benefit the individuals and those participants were not marginalized. Participants were duly notified of the purpose of the study, and participants would be provided with a consent form to sign before they engage in the study. The form fully disclosed the purpose of the study, the extent of involvement of the participants, and the participants' right to withdraw from participation at no risk to them. Vulnerable populations were not put at risk."

Slekar argues that more methods professors need to create "self-portraits" in the action-based research tradition to improve methods practice (2006, p. 256). He concludes:

"The social studies professoriate consists of scholars from large research universities, practitioners from colleges at liberal arts institutions, research practitioners from state teaching universities, adjunct faculty from hidden corners of higher education. We need to ask questions about each of these populations. We need to know who they are. We need to know why they are engaged in the social studies endeavour, and we need to know why and how they teach as they do" (p.256).

Theoretical Orientation

It is customary for qualitative researchers to detail their philosophical and epistemological assumptions regarding methodology, procedures for data collection, and analysis (Gale 1993; LeCompte & Preissle 1993).

Lincoln and Guba (1985) believe humans are the "instrument of choice" for qualitative research because they are able to respond to environmental cues, interact with the given situation, collect information at multiple levels simultaneously, perceive situations holistically, process data upon receipt, request verification of data, and explore unexpected occurrences. Included in any qualitative study is a brief biography of the researcher: "Interpretive research begins and ends with the biography and self of the researcher" (Denzin 1989, p. 12).

Data Analysis

Data analysis occurs as a process of "examining, categorizing, tabulating, or otherwise recombining the evidence" (Yin 1994, p. 102). It proceeds so as to produce useful information about the important areas within the research study, and it takes place within-case and cross-case to make sure high-quality reachable data while producing records of the study, as well as preservation of the data and the associated analysis after the study is completed (Huberman & Miles 1994). Also, data reduction "makes sense of massive amounts of data, reduces the volume of information, and identifies significant patterns"(Patton 1990, p. 371). Several qualitative researchers have stated that analysis should be an ongoing process starting at the beginning of the study and not reserved for the end (e.g., Merriam 1998; Stake 1995). Based on this belief the data reductions are made in the following order:

Free coding after the first round of interviews; then data analysis and development of codes to be used as a starting point to analyze instructional observation data

Codes verified by a second coder

Data analysis after all observations are completed using the previously generated codes, adjustments of codes as necessary after this analysis, and then use of codes to analyze the teacher-provided documents and the final interview data

Analysis of data to identify the emerging themes across the data (Lincoln & Guba 1985) and verification of analysis by the research auditor

Reduction of the data set on the basis of the identified themes in order to draw conclusions (Patton, 1990)

Presentation of conclusions to participants for verification

Verification of interpretation

In order to keep the interpretations, reductions, and resulting conclusions closely linked to the data, the researcher should incorporate a series of verification steps into the process. For this purpose an experienced researchers need to supervise the study in order to create investigator triangulation (Denzin, 1984), which is especially important in light of the difficulty of understanding the complex interactions of the two roles that each of the participants performs and the influence of these roles on instruction. The researcher should also perform member checking throughout the project, including the verification of findings, conclusion, and final presentation. The chair of the doctoral committee usually serves as research auditor (Cutcliffe & McKenna 2004).

Babbie (1983) defined qualitative research as "the non-numerical examination and interpretation of observation for the purpose of discovering underlying meanings and patterns of relationships" (p. 537). A qualitative design is selected for a number of reasons. The study is exploratory, while the beliefs and practices of population have been chronicled; the beliefs and practices of population remain unrecorded. If the study is exploratory, a qualitative design is selected to allow for a flexible yet rigorous inquiry; such flexibility is difficult with a quantitative design (Lincoln & Guba 1985). The choice of a qualitative design is based on Patton's (1990) assertion that the intent of qualitative research is to "provide perspective rather than truth, empirical assessment of local decision makers' theories of action rather than generation and verification of universal theories, and context-bound explorations rather than generalizations" (p. 491). The qualitative research method is used if the research topic or research question requires a design that facilitates depth of understanding over breadth (Creswell 1998): "Qualitative methods permit the evaluation researcher to study selected issues in depth and detail" (Patton 1990, p. 165). For depth and detail, a rich description of each participant's beliefs is created to better understand his or her practices (Lincoln & Guba 1985). A "rich description" is possible with a qualitative design that uses interviews and observations to understand teachers' beliefs and the context in which those beliefs are enacted (Cornett 1990; Pajares 1992). Moreover, a qualitative approach accounts for the context in which the phenomenon of interest takes place (Creswell 1994; Lincoln & Guba 1985; Patton 1990).A consideration of context is especially important for a study. In a qualitative study, the research does not intend to present a definitive "truth" of the given situation; the intention is usually to elicit reflection by the reader to create an opportunity to learn about the situation under examination (Stake 1995).