Education in the Abbasid Caliphate

Education of Abbasid

Today, the majority of high school students hope to finish college one day. This is a realistic dream for many, as there is an established education system that gives students a choice of career paths and training. The modern world if full of universities and training centers. However, the world was not always like this. Many centuries ago, education was limited to the privileged and even the privileged did not have many opportunities in learning. Today's existing modern educational system has been influenced by traditions of the past, particularly by the great advances that occurred during the Abbasid Dynasty in the Muslim world.

One of the achievements of Muslim culture during the Abbasid Dynasty was the widespread spread of literacy. Elementary education was almost universal, especially in the cities. Emphasis on the value of reading and writing stems from the very first revelations of the Qur'an, which mention how God revealed to humankind knowledge and the use of the pen.

The Muslims believed that every man and woman has a duty to educate themselves and their children. Therefore, the entire Muslim community had a collective responsibility to ensure that some members of society achieve the highest levels of learning, so that everyone could be taught. Muslim rulers and other wealthy individuals have traditionally undertaken this responsibility over time, and across a wide spectrum of Muslim cultures.

From the sixth to eleventh centuries, when Western leaders were struggling to sign their own names, Muslims preserved and maintained existing knowledge in educational centers throughout the Middle East. At its peak in the tenth and eleventh centuries, the Islamic educational system was a vast combination of Eastern and Western classical knowledge, combined with innovative discoveries in physics, social sciences and mathematics.

Before the Prophet Mohammed was born in 570 A.D., many Persian children were already going to elementary schools similar to those in Greece. In these schools, the children learned basic grammar and mathematics, as well as poetry, horsemanship and swimming. Many of these classes were taught in private homes and grounds.

The educational standards were greatly affected by the advancement of the Abbasid Dynasty, and a new form of elementary school system was introduced in the seventh century. The Koran became the central subject of education in this new school system. For a while, these two forms of elementary education existed side by side, funded by private parties

Though it enjoyed monarchical powers and used these powers frequently in many areas of life, the medieval Islamic state initially played little role in education. The caliphs and lesser officials often generously patronized artists and scholars, yet there was no systematic government funding or operation of schools. As in Greek and Italy, education flourished regardless of government support and a solid educational system evolved.

During its golden age in the eighth through the tenth centuries, during the Abbasid Dynasty, the Islamic world enjoyed a level of literacy greater than any seen before. The Muslims led the world in science, and in poetry and philosophy, it was greatly prolific.

History of Abbassid Dynasty

The Abbasid Arab family descended from Abbas, the uncle of the Prophet Muhammad. The Abbasids held the caliphate from 749 to 1258 A.D. However, they were not recognized in Spain or west of Egypt. Under the Umayyad caliphs, the Abbasids lived peacefully until they became involved in numerous disputes, beginning in the eight-century. At this point, the family joined with the Shiite faction in opposing the Umayyads. In 747 A.D.,

Abu Muslim united the majority of the empire in revolt against the Umayyads.

The leader of the Abbasid family became caliph as Abu al-Abbas as-Saffah late in 749 A.D. The last Umayyad caliph was defeated and the Umayyad family was nearly gone, except for one surviving member. The family fled to Spain, where the Umayyads came to rule. Under the second Abbasid caliph, called al-Mansur, the capital was moved from Damascus to Baghdad. Therefore, Persian influence grew strong in the empire.

The early years of Abbasid rule were brilliant, rising to true splendor under Harun al-Rashid, the fifth caliph, and to educational brilliance under his son al-Mamun, the seventh caliph. However, less than a hundred years of rule led to the slow decline of the Abbasids. Long periods of disorder were marked by assassinations, depositions, control by Turks, and other disturbances. From the beginning of Abbasid reign, there were rival caliphs.

In 836 A.D., the capital was transferred to Samarra, remaining there until 892 A.D. Under the Abbasids, the power of the caliphate became chiefly spiritual. Many independent kingdoms rose, and the empire split into autonomous units. The Seljuk Turks came to hold the real power at Baghdad. The conquests of Jenghiz Khan further lowered the prestige of the Abbasids, and in 1258 A.D., Kahn's grandson Hulagu Khan sacked Baghdad and overthrew the Abbasid caliphate.

The 37th caliph died in the disaster, but a member of the family escaped to Cairo, where he was recognized as caliph. The Cairo line of the Abbasid caliphate, completely subordinated to the Mamluks, survived until after the Ottoman conquest of Egypt.

One of the greatest contributions of the Abbasid Empire was the nation-wide increase of the pursuit of knowledge. The educational standards during the Abbasid era were high. Elementary education, both for men and women, flourished. During this time, schools and colleges were created and maintained, and extension courses from mosques as centers grew outward to areas beyond.

During the Abbasid times, private and public libraries were very common. A single street in contained a thousand bookstores. Paper, which introduced from China, was manufactured in the provinces from vegetable fiber.

During this time, most Europeans were illiterate and even European leaders could barely read and write. However, the Arabs were undergoing a massive intellectual awakening, with nothing but an intellect stimulated by extreme mental curiosity and language was a huge part of this.

Educational Standards of the Abbasid Empire

The Prophet Muhammad believed that "it is the duty of every Muslim man and woman to seek education," and because of this belief, the Arabs were encouraged to make the pursuit of knowledge a top priority in their lives.

The Muslims, in ancient civilzation, felt that it was their duty to pursue knowledge and this gave them an educational advantage over other civilizations.

The earliest elementary educational institutions were the mosque schools, which were founded by the Prophet himself. In early times, the Prophet sat in the mosque, surrounded by a group of listeners, and taught his people. The Prophet also trained teachers and sent them to different tribes to educate tribe members in the Qur'an.

Since the time of the Greeks, formal education existed in some form. The early Arabs translated and preserved not only these early Greek teachings, but also those of the Indians and Persians. In addition, they used these early teachings as a basis for the launch of a massive educational revolution beginning during the Abbasid dynasty.

During the Abbasid dynasty, literally thousands of mosque schools were created throughout the Arab empire. These mosque schools taught students a wide variety of subjects, ranging from hadith (the science of tradition), fiqh (ju-risprudence), philology, poetry, rhetoric and many others.

During the tenth century, in Baghdad alone, there were approximately 3,000 mosques. During the fourteenth century, Alexandria had about 12,000 mosques, all of which played a crucial role in education.

The mosque schools were simple. A teacher would sit on a cushion, leaning against a column wall. The students would sit around him, listening and taking notes. Only Muslirns were permitted to attend the Qur'an or hadiih (religious) sessions.

However, education was not limited to Muslims. Non-Muslims were permitted to attend all other subjects. The mosques were open to both rich and poor people, who were permitted to attend classes as often as they wished. Classes were conducted at specific times and announced in advance by the teacher.

Often, students would attend several classes per day and many would travel from one mosque to another. The teachers of these classes enjoyed enormous respect from their students, who followed a formal, yet unwritten, code of behavior. In the mosques, talking, laughing, joking and just about any type of disrespectable behavior were strictly condemned.

The mosques did not specify an age limit, nor were there any restrictions on women pursuing education. Many historians say that women taught classes, as well, and men often attended these classes. Many modern historians downplay the effect that early Arab women had on the social, economic and political life of the Abbassid Empire.

The Muslims practiced a tradition of recording the teacher's discussions, a method which quickly developed into more systematic teaching and note taking. Teachers methodically dealt with subjects, allowed their students to ask questions and tested their knowledge. Success was rewarded with a letter, or certificate of study.

Muslim rulers have, since the Umayyad times, held, held instruction for their children and the children of courtiers. This was especially true in Abbasid times. The curriculum of the rulers was similar to that of the regular schools, but it also included instruction to prepare for polite society and government service.

These palace schools also prepared children of rulers for higher education. Like the later town and palace schools in Renaissance Europe, they also taught students the arts of formal speaking and conversation, history, tradition, and ethics. The teachers of these schools were called mu'addi, which means "one who refines manners."

Arab women studied, practiced and taught medicine, mysticism, poetry, teaching, and oratory and even took active roles in military conflicts. However, due to false Arab stereotypes, women do not receive much credit for their accomplishments and contributions to Arab history.

In these early mosques, teachers did not follow a specific format or curriculum. Instead, teachers were allowed to teach freely and use a variety of methods of instruction. Some teachers would teach from a text and answer questions later. Others would allow teaching assistants to read the instructor's lessons, while the teacher remained available for questions and comments. Many others taught their classes without ever opening a text.

One popular instructional methodology used was both didactic and discursive. The teacher first delivered a formal lecture, while the students gathered in a circle. The most advanced students and visiting guests sat closest to the teacher; women and children would sit at the outer circles if they wished to attend. Integration of community and school was expected. The lecture was delivered from a prepared manuscript. There were not many texts, so the students took notes and were expected to memorize a great deal of the content.

Three steps were used in the presentation: first, the teacher introduced the subject, avoiding details; second, the material was revised in greater depth; finally, the difficult points of the subject were fully explained.

The lecture was then followed by intense discussion during which questions were posed and answered, sometimes by the teacher, sometimes by the guests and advanced students. The debate would often grow heated and the teacher was expected not to lose control or become angry while in debate with the students and guests.

In 1066 A.D., a new type of school system was introduced. Nizam al-Mulk, a Seljuk vizier, founded the Nizamiyya Madrasa in Baghdad. The madrasa later become the leader in secondary and college-level education in the Arab empire. Before al-Mulk founded this school, madrasas did indeed exist. However, this man founded the school that led to the popularization of secondary education.

As a result of this discovery, various universities in the Arab empire were created and became the prototype of various early European universities. Students from many lands flocked to study at Muslim colleges and universities. The reputation of Muslim colleges and other centers of learning in Spain and Italy extended to Christians in Spain and across the Pyrenees to scholars in France, England and Italy.

One European clergyman of the ninth century, San Alvaro of Cordova, wrote about the access of his contemporaries to Muslim education: "Many of my co-religionists read the poems and stories of the Arabs, and studied the writings of Muhammadans, theologians and philosophers, not in order to refute them, but to learn to express themselves most elegantly and correctly in the Arabic tongue. Alas! All the young Christians who became notable for their talents know only the language and literature of the Arabs, read and study Arabic books with zeal and at enormous cost from great libraries, and everywhere proclaim aloud that their literature is worthy of admiration."

Founded in 969 A.D., AI-Azhar University in Cairo preceded other universities in Europe by two centuries. Even today, it attracts students from all over the world.

The word "madrasa" literally translates to "place for learning." These madrasas were the foundation of departmentalized schools where education was available to everybody. Like today's colleges, madrasa included student dormitories, which allowed students to live on the grounds of the school.

Each madrasa, depending on its location, followed a specific curriculum. The subjects taught were the religious sciences (including the study of the Qur'an, hadith, jurisprudence and grammar) and the intellectual sciences (including mathematics, astronomy, music and physics). As these schools began to attract distinguished teachers and specialists from throughout the Arab empire, the number of disciplines increased and secondary education became the norm.

Instructors of these madrasas were given generous salaries and students were given substantial scholarships and funding to pursue their education. Both government and private entities provided education funding. Because the government played an important role in promoting these institutions, the subject matter, choice of teachers and allocation of funds were closely supervised and regulated by government officials.

These madrasas evolved from the elementary and secondary schools that became popular in the Abbasid Empire, including the mosque schools and other traditional learning facilities, such as libraries, tutoring houses, palace schools, discussion groups in the homes of Muslim scholars, and the library salons in the palaces of wealthy men and courtiers who encouraged learning and scholarship.

In the Abbasid period, men of various social classes held majaits or meetings in their homes on a variety of subjects. Today, many Islamic cities are resurrecting this type of learning, in the spirit of reviving traditional Islam.

During the Abbasid Empire, men and women traveled to other cities to seek knowledge under the direction of various masters. These students traveled to places like Egypt, West Mrica and Spain, attending classes and discussing social, political, religious, philosophical and scientific matters. The custom was later carried on by Europe during the Renaissance.

Other less formal learning centers existed in Muslim society. The Suq al-Warraqin, which means "Market of the Papersellers," was a gathering place for booksellers, calligraphers, scholars, literary figures, notaries and bookbinders. Bookstores were similar to libraries, where browsers might find a book or meet an author or fellow scholar. There were a great deal of trades, skills, crafts and arts to be learned at these places.

The homes of scholars were other informal learning centers and were often visited by people seeking education. Private homes were used for regular literary salons, or gatherings with invited guests. In addition to learning, guests picked up the latest fashions in literature, manners, dress, food and decorative living.

Beginning with the Khalifah's salons, Muslim rulers held formal debates, discussions and exhibitions of scholarly talent regularly at their courts. The fasting month of Ramadan became a traditional time for holding scholarly gatherings at the courts of rulers and in private homes. This tradition has held up through time.

Public and private libraries-in homes, palaces, and specially constructed centers, were among the most important centers for education. Scholars traveled to research the latest in available knowledge. The wealthiest patrons of libraries gave visitors anything they needed, like copyists, writing supplies, servants, food, lodging and sometimes even money.

In the eighth century, academies began to emerge, serving as centers for the translation of earlier works and for innovative research. Each academy included many rooms, which were used for classes, meetings and readings. Books were collected from all over the world to create monumental libraries that housed volumes on medicine, philosophy, mathematics, science, alchemy, logic, astronomy and a variety of other subjects.

During this century, teachers used paper and textbooks and the concept of "teacher certification" was introduced. An instructor would give his permission to worthy students to teach from one or all of his textbooks. Because of this practice, an individual could be allowed to teach a subject although he himself was a student in another class. As a result, the distinction between teacher and student was often minimized.

Paper brought a series of changes in the Islamic civilization. However, this knowledge of papermaking was not retained in its own boundaries. It spread to Iraq, Egypt, North Africa and Spain. The role of Islam in papermaking is evident in the way we still count paper in units -- today they are units of 500 sheets -- called reams. That word comes from the Arabic rizmah, meaning a "bale or bundle."

Later, in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, as Arab influence spread to Spain, Sicily and the rest of Europe, Europeans became increasingly aware of significant Arab advancements in many fields, especially education and science. Books were then translated from Arabic into Latin and, later, to vernacular languages. European schools, which had long limited learning to the "seven liberal arts," began to expand their curriculum according to Arab teachings.

For some five hundred years, Arab learning and scholarship, particularly during the Abbasid Empire, played a major role in the development of education in the West. The Arabs brought with them advanced techniques in translation and research and opened new doors in areas of medicine, the physical sciences and mathematics. Application of empiricism in all fields of study was rapidly incorporated into the learning system of those who became familiar with Arab methodology.

Abbasid Influence in Islam and Beyond The Abbasid period had an enormous effect on the Islamic education system. According to Medhi Nakosteen, the "Islamic culture was as cumulative as it was heterogeneous." The era of Abbasid became known as the Classical Age of Islam in education and the curriculum of the schools changed enormously during this time. Sophisticated tastes and a thirst for knowledge, any knowledge, were a hallmark of Abbasid rule.

To explain the range of the curriculum during the period of Abbasid rule, Nakosteen discusses seven basic sources of "transmissions" from classical cultures to the Muslims which eventually became included in the "knowledge and experience" of Islam. These transmissions from other cultures are as follows:

materials directly translated from Greek into Arabic;

materials translated into Pahlavi, amalgamated with Zoroastrian-Hindu (Buddhist) thought and then transmitted through translation into Arabic;

materials translated from Hindu to Pahlavi, then into Syriac, Hebrew, and Arabic;

materials borrowed from non-Muslim sources, with the line of transmission obscure;

materials which were mere commentaries or summaries of Greco-Persian works;

materials which were advances over pre-Islamic learning but which would not have been developed in Islam except for pre-Islamic foundations in Hellenistic, Syrian, Zoroastrian, and Hindu learning; and materials which appear to arise purely from individual genius and national or regional stimulation, which would have developed regardless of pre-Islamic learning, although the form these original creations took might have been different if they had developed in a non-Islamic context or frame of reference.

The first two items indicate the existence of a Judaic-Christian source. This could be linked directly to Muhammed, who had traveled to Syria when he was young and was greatly influenced by a Christian monastic. In addition, he traveled to Mecca, where a Christian sage influenced him. Muhammed consequently developed a respect for both the teachings of Judaism and Christianity.

As a result of these outside influences, the Islamic curriculum was modeled in such a way that included many elements from the East, the philosophical thought of the Greeks, educational system of the Hebrews and the religious beliefs of Christianity. These elements, combined with innovative teaching methods and discoveries, led to a distinct Islamic educational system that made Islam the leading educational system in the world for over five hundred years.

Nakosteen used two headings to categorize the Islamic system: religious aims and secular aims. The Islamic system was based upon several individual and foundational principles:

The Qur'an is the source of all truth;

Knowledge is to be based on a spiritual foundation;

Knowledge is to have sectarian morals;

Secular subjects are to be subordinated to religion;