Gender-Based Education for Many Decades

Gender-Based Education

For many decades there have been disparities in education along the lines of gender. Some of these disparities were as a result of sexism and an unwillingness to teach female students. However, in the current educational environment many of these disparities can be attributed to the fact that boys and girls simply learn differently. As such, adjustments have to be made as it pertains to teaching styles. These adjustments are particularly needed at the middle school level where subjects such as math and science become more difficult and female students start to lose interest. Gender segregation within the context of middle schools is a topic that has received a great deal of attention in recent years. In addition a great deal of attention has been focused on the disparity between boys and girls as it pertains to math scores at the middle school level.

The purpose of this literature review is to summarize the existing literature related to gender specific learning experiences in Middle School Students. More specifically the literature review will focus on the challenges associated with Middle School Education, the and overall achievement of students. In addition the literature review will summarize research related to gender differences in learning styles. Finally the research will focus on gender-based education in general and gender-based education in middle school in particular. The literature review will also provide a synthesis of the research found through the investigative process.

Challenges of MS Education and achievement overall

Since the inception of Middle Schools in the 1980's, controversy has surrounded the concept of a separate school for students entering early adolescents. The idea behind the development of middle schools was to alter traditional junior high school. Educators believed that middle schools would create an educational environment more consistent with the needs of children entering early adolescents. With the introduction of middle school also came new organizational and instructional practices such as the interdisciplinary team approach to instructing students ("Problems and Promise"). That is, students have different teachers for each subject as a way to prepare them for high school. In addition Dickinson (2001) argues that middle schools also came about because educators wanted to keep early adolescents away from the bad influences posed by older adolescents. In addition, educators believed that the introduction of middle school would expose students to college preparatory classes prior to entering high school. With this understood, middle school was established because of social and scholastic concerns (Dickinson 2001).

For many years educators have acknowledged the difficulties associated with middle school education that are not present with elementary school or high school. Indeed, early adolescence can be a difficult time for students. It is important to remember that the concept of Middle School is a relatively new one. According to an article entitled "Problems and Promise of the American Middle School" there are approximately nine million students in middle school. Middle school serves as "as an intermediary phase between elementary school and high school ("Problems and Promise...1). "

The article goes on to explain that middle schools have taken blame for many of the behavioral and academic problems seen in adolescents. In addition middle schools are often blamed for the disengagement that teen students have as it pertains to school and academic achievement.

In many school districts middle school is composed of students in sixth, seventh and eighth grades. However, in some districts middle school is composed of 7th and 8th graders. Although there has been a great deal of concern as it relates to the middle school concept and the problems that are present for middle school students, many of these issues remain unresolved. The next few paragraphs will focus on the challenges of Middle School and academic achievement overall.

One of the primary problems with Middle School is the issue of transition. Many students have attended a single elementary school where they are familiar with the teachers and know the other students ("Problems and Promise..."). However in middle school, a significant transition takes place because the children that attend middle schools don't all come from the same elementary school. Middle schools are made up of students from several different elementary schools ("Problems and Promise..."). With this being the case the transition can be difficult because students are often in classes in which they do not know any of the other students ("Problems and Promise...").

This can lead to huge problems as it pertains to how students transition from elementary school to middle school.

A book entitled Middle School and the Age of Adjustment reiterates the idea that transitioning from elementary school to middle school can be quite difficult for students. The author explains that students suddenly have to go from have one teacher to having as many as seven different teachers. Each teacher has a different style of teaching and different expectations. The author explains, "At age eleven, children now must adjust to seven teachers, seven personality types. Even if every teacher was a model of patience and helpfulness, adjusting to seven authority figures takes some time. For example, Mrs. a. may post the homework on the front board, and Mr. B. may post homework on the sideboard. As simple as this may sound, it is difficult for some eleven-year-olds to think expansively enough to adjust to this (Bernstein, 2002,14)."

Additionally, in middle school students have to be more organized than in elementary school because teachers aren't constantly reminding them of what assignments they are expected to complete. The process of becoming more organized requires help from teachers and parents. This is also a difficult aspect of the transition between elementary school and middle school (Bernstein, 2002).

Oddly enough the author also contends that one of the most difficult aspects of middle school is memorizing number combinations for lockers. The author explains, many students come to middle school not knowing how to open a locker. In middle school, students have two lockers; one for gym class and the other for the rest of their classes. Not being able to open their lockers often causes sixth grade students a great deal of panic and anxiety. This is just an added example of the problems associated with the middle school transition.

A book entitled Reinventing the Middle School also posits that there are serious issues and problems as it pertains to the middle school concept and instruction. The author argues two major challenges with middle school which are interdisciplinary teaching or team teaching and teachers who have not been instructed on how to teach early adolescent students. The author contends that the interdisciplinary approach is often difficult to implement because teachers do not know how to communicate with one another. Without communication such an approach is nearly impossible to implement effectively. In addition, teaching early adolescent students presents challenges that many teachers are not equipped to deal with. These students are going through a myriad of emotional, social and physiological changes that effect mood and behavior. As such the way in which they learn can also be affected.

A book entitled Focus on the Wonder Years: Challenges Facing the American Middle School, elaborates on the problem stating:

Unlike elementary and high school teachers, middle school teachers typically have not been trained to teach at the grade level they are teaching; rather, most have been trained to teach at either the elementary or the high school level. Middle school teachers certified at the elementary level may lack an in-depth knowledge of their subject area. Middle school teachers that were certified at the elementary or high school level may not understand the developmental needs of young adolescents or the instructional practices advocated for today's middle schools. Thus, there is a push to require middle school teachers to obtain specific certification. (Juvonen, 2004 73-74)

The authors further assert that many middle school teachers do not have enough knowledge about the subject matter that they teach. According to the book when compared to those who teach at the high school level, middle school science, social studies and math teachers are teaching subjects in which they have not been prepared. That is, they are teaching in subject areas for which they did not major or minor in college (Ingersoll, 1999; Juvonen, 2004) in addition a study conducted by the National Center for education statistics found that nearly 50% of all middle school students and more than 50% of students in impoverished middle schools have instructors who do not have at least a minor in the subject ("To Close the Gap, Quality Counts," 2003; Juvonen et al., 2004, 75).

The author explains further that the majority of the research on subject-matter-specific training has math as the subject of inquiry. In fact in their research Heaviside et al., (1998) found that having a teacher with a bachelors degree in mathematics increased mathematics achievements in eighth graders. However the same study found that the achievement of 4th-grade students was not improved when a teacher had a bachelors degree in mathematics (1998).

In another study, Chaney (1995) found strong subject-matter preparation of math and science teachers was positively correlated to an increase in student achievement. Juvonen et al., (2004) explains that a teachers in depth understanding of mathematics in particular is extremely important in middle school. The authors also point out that learning more difficult math in the eighth grade such as math is imports because 8th grade students who take algebra are more likely to apply to college than those that don't (Atanda, 1999). In addition the authors insists that when middle school students have teachers that have college degrees in the subject matter they are teaching the students are more likely to perform well on tests (Wilson, Floden, Ferrini-Mundy, 2001). The author further explains that Researchers who have reviewed the evidence on subject-matter training believe that students in teacher training programs should be taught not only the content but also its conceptual underpinnings and a strong reasoning ability (Wilson, Floden, and Ferrini-Mundy, 2001). Other evidence, although not derived from research on middle schools, suggests that the effects of teachers' subject-matter preparation on student performance may be cumulative (Monk and King, 1994) and may be most apparent with courses of greater difficulty (Hawk, Coble, and Swanson, 1985). It is important not only that teachers possess subject-matter expertise but also that they know how to transmit this knowledge to students (Killion, 1999; Juvonen et al., 2004, 75)."

Indeed, it appears that one of the major challenges facing middle schools in America is a lack of teacher preparation. This preparation includes learning how to teach early adolescence students in general and having enough preparation in the area of the subject matter taught. It is astounding to know that preservice preparation is so difficult for middle school teachers to attain

The RAND article also explains no research has been conducted that has concluded that students actually benefit from the middle school environment. To the contrary the article explains, there is evidence suggesting that separate schools and the transitions they require can cause problems that negatively affect students' developmental and academic progress. RAND recommends that, over the coming years, states and school districts consider alternatives to the 6-8 structure to reduce multiple transitions for students and allow schools to better align their goals across grades K-12."

The issues associated with the transition from elementary school to middle school are also apparent in the area of overall achievement Middle school. The article explains that even though there have been increases in the overall achievement scores of students, there are serious disparities in achievement particularly along racial and ethnic lines. The article asserts that nearly 70% of American students in the 8th grade do not perform at grade level in science math and reading. This is based on national achievement tests. The article explains that this achievement outcome is particularly true among Black and Latino students. The article explains that these low levels of performance are true even among Black and Latino students whose parents are college educated. To remedy this problem the author insists programs such as summer school prior to sixth grade and additional reading and math course during the middle school years.

A book entitled "Focus on the Wonder Years: Challenges Facing the American Middle School asserts that for years curriculum focus in American Middle schools has been on meeting the social, emotional, and psychological needs of early adolescents. However in more recent times the trend has been towards academic achievement. According to the authors, academic achievement has become more of a focus because of the standards and accountability pressures associated with the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001. This federally mandated act requires all middle school students to be tested. In addition certain sanctions are places on schools when their students perform poorly on the test. The authors also report that Increased attention on achievement also stems from mounting criticism levied at middle schools for being academically undemanding (Carnegie, 1989; Jackson and Davis, 2000; Schmidt, McKnight, et al., 1999; Cooney, 1998a). Detractors point to the relatively poor standing of middle school students on international mathematics and science tests, to lagging test scores on state assessments, and to low performance on national tests as evidence that middle school education needs to be more challenging (Juvonen et al., 2004 28)."

Overall academic achievement is vitally important for the students and for America's standing in the world. According to the authors, American middle students are not performing as well as their counterparts in other developed countries (Juvonen et al., 2004). The authors explains that 4th grade students in America perform average in mathematics when compared to Australia, Canada, Cyprus, the Czech Republic, England, Hong Kong, Hungary, Iran, Italy, Japan, Korea, Latvia, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Singapore, and Slovenia. In the 4th grade American students rank ninth (Juvonen et al., 2004).

However, middle school students in the 8th grade were below average and only five of the listed countries ranked lower than American middle school students (Juvonen et al., 2004).

The author points out the research suggest that American students do not struggle with math at the elementary school level (Juvonen et al., 2004). However at some point between 4th grade and 8th grade mathematics becomes a struggle for American students. As a result in the decline of student grades from elementary school to middle school some educators have begun to question the purpose and the value of middle schools in America (Juvonen et al., 2004). It has also been suggested that middle schools be reformed because of poor performance (Juvonen et al., 2004). Educators fear that poor performing middle schools graduate students who also perform poorly in high school (Juvonen et al., 2004).

Gender Differences in Achievement

According to an article entitled "Effects of Girls Only Curriculum during Adolescence: Performance, Persistence Engagement in Mathematics and Science" explains that a great deal of the existing research has found that high school is the time in school in which there is a decline in interest in math in students overall and among adolescent girls in particular (AAUW, 1990,1998; Shapka & Keating). The authors explains that there should be great concern about the significant decline in interests as it pertains to girls and mathematics because it can prevent girls from entering majors in college that require a great deal of advanced math. The authors assert that this disinterest in math means that girls are more likely to shy away for math-intensive-majors which often means they will make less money than their male peers who earn degrees in areas of math. The authors also assert that the lower levels of mathematical achievement amongst girls and women results in women being at a disadvantage in a society where technology and mathematics go hand in hand (Shapka & Keating).

There have long been substantial gender differences in achievement. In past years men have outperformed women. However today women are consistently outperforming men in several areas of academic achievement, particularly as it pertains to college. An article entitled "Gender-Specific Trends in the Value of Education and the Emerging Gender Gap in College Completion" in school and in college, females are now doing as well as or better than males on many of the indicators of educational attainment, and the large gaps in educational attainment that once existed between men and women have in most cases been eliminated" (Bae et al. 2000:2). In 1972, more males than females enrolled in post-secondary education (53% versus 46%); by 1997 the reverse was true, with 70% of females enrolling in college compared to 64% of males (DiPrete & Buchmann, 2003)."

The research asserts that more women than men are attending college. It seems that much of this can be attributed to the type of education and messages that girls are receiving in K-12. Even though the research indicates certain disparities as it pertains to boys and girls in high school (Math and Science), girls are still attending college at higher rates than men. As was previously mentioned in the report even though women attend college at higher rates, many of the majors women tend to earn degrees in are not in the higher paying areas of science and technology. Since the American and global economy are extremely dependent on math, science and technology, the disparity between men and women must end. Many experts in the field of education believe that gender segregated or gender specific education could be the answer to this problem.

In addition to the overall achievement problems that students face in Middle school academic achievement in general is problematic as it pertains to American students.

Perspectives and expectations (non-empirical)

As it pertains to perspectives and expectation on Challenges of MS Education and achievement overall, the literature has several suggestions. As it pertains to perspectives some experts feel that the middle school concept should be abandoned altogether. They believe that students should attend elementary from kindergarten until 8th grade. They argue that Middle school serves no purpose and the transition is too difficult for many students to overcome.

They also assert that once the students are in eighth grade they have the ability to better handle the transition to high school.

On the other hand some experts in the field of education assert that the middle school concept simply needs to be reformed. They assert that early adolescence is a unique time, and that these particular students have some specific needs that are not the same as elementary school students or high school students. Proponents of middle school reformation argue that the original pedagogy of middle school simply needs to be implemented and carried out. They assert that the idea of interdisciplinary teaching and college preparatory work is needed and when properly implemented can be beneficial to students.

Overall it is unclear what the future will hold for middle school in America. On the one hand middle school has become an educational norm and a rite of passage in American society. On the other hand, many middle schools are failing to train students for high school and college in a manner consistent with the original goal of middle school. Now that a foundation has been laid as it pertains to the challenges of middle school and overall academic achievement, the research will focus on gender specific education.

Literature on gender specific education

To address the aforementioned issues related to academic achievement, Gender specific or gender segregated schools have increased in popularity. The concept of gender specific schools is not new; they have existed from elementary school all the way through college for many years. The following aspect of the literature review will focus on information related to gender specific education.

Gender Specific Education in general (k-12)

In general, gender specific education is present in elementary school middle school and high school and post secondary education. For the purposes of this discussion the research will focus on K-12 education. For the most part gender specific education is most likely to be present in private schools or magnet schools. There are many private schools that have always separated students based on gender. Educators have long believed that separating students on the basis of gender makes for an educational environment that is more conducive to learning.

The primary reason for the separation of genders in the academic setting is the belief that boys and girls simply learn differently. This subject matter has been explored the most as it pertains to the subjects of Math and Science. According to an article published in Teaching Children Mathematics, even though a great deal of progress has been made as it pertains to the participation of women in the area of math there still exist a lack of gender equity in the field of mathematics. The article points out that women still represent less than 15% of the employed professionals within the areas of computer science, geology, mathematics, engineering environmental science, agricultural science, chemistry, physics and astronomy, and economics (NSF 1996). This is consistent with the earlier findings of the literature review which assert that even though women attend college at higher rates than men, they are less likely to major in fields that require advanced math.

The article also explains that female high school students still score lower on the Math portion of the SAT than their male peers. Although there has been a great deal of improvement in the gap between male and female achievement in Math, gender equity in this area is still something the American school system has yet to achieve.

The article further explains that certain models were adopted early on as it pertains to gender specific classrooms. The article asserts that early classroom interventions were based on beliefs about gender differences tended to focus on attributes that girls and women tended to share and attempted to change their attributes to fit those who were academically successful (Becker, 2003). In addition to these early models for gender specific education, there were also feminist models that defined gender as a social construct and asserted that differences in gender were based on social construct instead of actual biological differences associated with Gender (Becker,2003). The author points out that when explaining gender differences it is important to avoid describing these differences as attributes that make females weaker or inferior to males. The differences between the manner in which males and females learn are not disabilities.

Even though some prior research has suggested that there are no biological causes for the way males and females learn, contemporary research suggest that the primary reason for gender differences in learning styles can be attributed to differences between the male and female brain. According to Depape (2006) the differences between the male and femals brain can actually be seen during pregnancy. The author explains that the brain goes through changes in the womb that are lasting. In addition male and femlale brains are compsed of different chemicals which impact learning (Achiron, Lipitz & Achiron, 2000; Depape 2006). The article further points out that the male and the female brain are different as it pertains to the two hemispheres of the brain. According to the author in males the left hemisphere is more developed than the right. However, in females the two hemispheres are almost identical in size (Sax, 2004).The brains of males and females are also different as it pertains to the presence of white and gray matter. According to the author there is more grey matter and less white matter in a female brain and for males the reverse is the case (Sax, 2004).

In addition to the aforementioned differences between the male and female brain, research has suggested that the manner in which males and females listen, read, process information, and react to situation are different (Sax, 2004).

Additionally there are hormonal, structural, chemical, and practical differences in the brains of men and women (Gurian, 2001). The differences between the mail and female brain are so profound that it is not surprising that men and women learn differently. These differences also provide a substantial argument as it pertains to the implementation of gender specific classrooms (Depape 2006). Many experts believe that separating students by gender in the educational setting could lead to higher academic performance in both males and females (Depape 2006).

Now that it has been established that there are differences between the male and female brain, the literature will focus on how differences in the brain ay affect the learning styles of males and females. Although some have dismissed gender-based education, there are many that believe boys and girls learn differently and as such they have different educational needs. Becker (2003) points out that as it pertains to the conventional ways of teaching math such as, "stressing certainty, a single correct answer, deduction, logic, argumentation, algorithms, structure, and formality -- may be particularly incompatible with the ways in which many females learn (Becker 1995; Belenky et al. 1997)." Additionally in their research Belenky et al. (1997), found that differences in learning styles may be the determining factor as to why women avoid careers in the areas of mathematics and science.

In fact Belenky et al. (1997) established a new theoretical model explaining the ways in which women learn. This theoretical model is called Women's Ways of Knowing, it contains the following five attributes:

Silence- as it pertains to silence the theoretical model asserts that the knowledge attained is not in the possession of the individual, that is it is not articulated vocally. That is the learner simply embraces the judgment of the instructor and believes that what is presented is factual (Belenky et al., 1997).

Received knowing- as it relates to this aspect of the theory the learner acquires knowledge through listening and simply regurgitates what was heard back to the instructor. In addition as it pertains to received knowing the students understanding of the subject matter is contingent upon a source outside of themselves and the learner is satisfied to believe the information they are given (Belenky et al., 1997). For instance, "when asked why one inverts and multiplies to divide fractions, a learner in this perspective might say, "Because my teacher told me to do it that way (Belenky et al., 1997)." subjective knowing, as it relates to subjective-knowing perspective, it is the belief that knowledge is derived from personal experiences. In this instance the learner is reliant upon what appears or feels correct, as opposed to what an external source has projected as being correct (Belenky et al., 1997).

A procedural knowing- involves reasoning and the evaluation of valid arguments (Belenky et al., 1997).

A constructed knowing- as it pertains to constructed-knowing. The learner has the capacity to incorporate intuitive knowledge with that resulting from experience and what others identify. In this perspective the learner values the density of knowledge and the significance of the framework (Belenky et al., 1997).

The author further asserts that "Belenky and her colleagues identified a gender difference in this perspective: Men seem to favor logic, argumentation, and rigor to evaluate validity, or separate knowing (Perry 1970), whereas women are more likely to use conjecture and their own and others' experience and knowledge, or connected knowing. Authority comes from these shared experiences (Becker, 2003)."

Other research has also established the differences in the learning styles of males and females. According to an article entitled "Do Gender Specific Classrooms Increase the Success of Students?," there are obvious gender differences in learning styles. The author asserts that academic performance often suffers because educators are unaware of the various learning styles of students (Depape, 2006). The article argues that the differences in learning styles between the genders can be attributed to physiological differences including higher level cortical functions and hearing abilities (Sax, 2004). For instance the article reports that in 1959

Dr. John Corso found that girls hear, on average, two to four times as well as boys (Corso, 1959). This finding means that if a teacher is somewhat soft spoken, boys throughout the classroom may not be able to hear the teacher, leading to off task behaviour. Providing students with gender specific classrooms might be part of the solution to this problem. In a male only classroom, teachers may be able to teach using a much louder voice and approach (Depape, 2006,)."

The article also conclude that because females have better hearing than males, Female children may learn better in a classroom where the teacher has a softer tone (Depape, 2006,). Additionally if the teacher's tone is too loud it may be a distraction for the female students.

The article also points out another difference in learning styles between males and females which is deductive vs. inductive reasoning (Depape, 2006,). According to the author male conceptualization tends to lean towards deductive reasoning while females use inductive reasoning to conceptualize information (Gurian, 2001). The author asserts that the differences in reasoning learning styles is associated with why males tend to do better on multiple choice questions than females (Depape, 2006,). On the other hand females tend to do better on written exams or essays. The author also points out that boys have a higher aptitude for abstract reasoning than girls. The article further explains that males learn better from "chalk board instructions" while females prefer instruction that utilizes manipulative and objects (Depape, 2006,).

Another learning difference that author points out is the way males and female work in groups.

Although both females and males enjoy working in groups they do not approach group work in an identical way (Depape, 2006,). For instance Gurian (2001) found that females leaned toward the development of groups that were loosely structured. On the other hand, males tended to create groups that were extremely organized. The author points out that in gender-based classrooms instructors have the flexibility to alter their teaching styles to meet the needs of their students.

The author also points out a difference in learning styles between the genders that is not often noticed. This difference in learning style has to do with the manner in which males and females view failure. The author explains,

Girls generalize the meaning of their failures because they interpret them as indicating that they have disappointed adults, and thus they are of little worth. Boys, in contrast, appear to see their failures as relevant only to the specific subject area in which they have failed; this may be due to their relative lack of concern with pleasing adults.

In addition, because girls view evaluative feedback as diagnostic of their abilities, failure may lead them to incorporate this information into their more general view of themselves. Boys, in contrast, may be relatively protected from such generalization because they see such feedback as limited in its diagnosticity. (Sax, 2004; Depape, 2006,)

The author contends that as it relates to failure instructors in gender-based classrooms have the capacity to better address reaction to failure than instructors who are not in gender specific classes.

Indeed, there is a great deal of evidence to suggests that there are learning differences amongst the genders. When instructors are not fully aware that such differences exists, the results can be poor academic performance and even behavioral problems. It also appears that the gender differences made evident through this section of the literature review serve as a concrete foundation for the implementation of gender-based classrooms.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Gender-Based Programs

Now that we have established that a great deal of literature has concluded that there are gender differences as it pertains to learning styles, Let us focus of the advantages and disadvantages often associated with gender-based learning.

Disadvantages

Lack of Support. One of the primary disadvantages is lack of support on both the administrative and parental level. In some school districts where gender-based education has been introduced, some parents are in disagreement with the concept. They believe that gender-based education is not necessary. In addition, instructors and administrators alike often have a difficult time absorbing the concept and in some cases are not supportive of teachers that are instructing gender-based classrooms.

Stereotypes. As it pertains to stereotypes one of the major concerns with gender-based classroom is that it stereotypes students based on gender (Depape, 2006,). The author points out that not all boys are alike and likewise not all girls are alike. With this understood gender-based teaching may not be suitable for students who are not typically female or typically male (Depape, 2006,). Therefore schools that are considering gender-based education must take this into consideration so that certain students do not fall through the cracks (Depape, 2006,).

Another Disadvantage of gender-based classrooms is the so called disconnect from the real world. According to Depape (2006) some people that are against gender specific education assert that it does not prepare kids for the real world. They argue that in the real world men and women have to work together to achieve common goals (Finlay, 2004). If the students are not placed in coed classes they will not have this "real world" experience and they will be less prepared for life. It has also been suggested that boys who not placed into classes with girls will never learn how to be respectful of women (Depape, 2006,).

Although these disadvantages do exist the author asserts,

There are arguments to counter these criticisms, however. When the sexes are separated, girls have a unique opportunity to build self-confidence and self-esteem without worrying about boys interrupting this process. When a girl gets into the "real" world, she may then have the confidence to say no to a boy or give him her opinion. Moreover, boys can learn to respect girls without being around them during class time. There are several opportunities available outside of the classroom to interact with the opposite sex. It is possible that most of the opponents of gender specific classrooms may not truly understand what is happening in the schools where gender specific classrooms exist (Depape, 2006,)."

Indeed, gender-based education does not provide a perfect solution to the education problem facing America. There are clearly some disadvantages associated with the implementation of a gender-based strategy at schools at any level of schooling. However there are quite a few advantages associated with gender-based education and they will be explained in the next section of this literature review.

Advantages of Gender-based education

In addition to the disadvantages there are several advantages associated with gender specific education.

These advantages include decrease in disciplinary problems, increase in academic performance, and academic diversity (Jensen, 2004; Depape, 2006). As it pertains to a decrease in disciplinary problems research suggests that classes that segregate students on the basis of gender tend to have les disciplinary problems. This could be due to the fact that students are more engaged in leaning because the teaching styles are more conducive with their learning styles.

As it relates to academic diversity, gender-based classrooms also provide an advantage because they give students the opportunity to learn in an environment that is different than what they may be accustomed to. It presents the students with a different learning tool. This is particularly true for schools in which there are coed classes and gender-based classes.

Lastly there is an increase in overall academic performance. Students who are part of gender-based education tend to have better academic outcomes. In addition, those students that have been found to have higher test scores overall and as it relates to specific subjects in which they were participants in single sex classrooms.

In addition to the aforementioned advantages Depape (2006) names advantages that are unique to boys and advantages that are unique to girls. As it pertains to girls there are three advantages the author lists. These advantages include access to learning styles that have been customized to fit their needs, greater educational opportunities, and increased independence.

The author points out that one of the primary advantages of gender-based education for girls is that they have access to an education that is designed to fit their needs. When gender-based education is properly implemented it presents girls with the opportunity to learn in an environment that is consistent with their learning style. The gender-based education allows the teacher greater flexibility and as such the teacher has the freedom to choose books and in class activities that are more consistent with the way girls learn.

As it pertains to expanded educational opportunities the author explains that gender-based education allows girls to explore subject areas that they would not necessarily explore in a classroom that was not gender-based. These areas of study include science and math. The author explains that "The expansion occurs in gender specific classes because they encourage females to be daring without the risk of being demeaned by males. In this setting, females realize that the males will not be available to make fun of them when trying something new (Depape 2006)."

The final advantage of gender-based education for girls is a greater ability to exercise autonomy. That is gender-based education is believed to improve independence in girls. The author explains that when female students are placed in gender specific classrooms there is a reduction in teenage pregnancy (Pellegrini, 2002). Research has also found that female students in gender-based classrooms tend to make better decisions as it pertains to relationships with the opposite sex. This better decision making is attributed to the fact that girls in gender-based classrooms tend to have better self-esteem and more confidence (DePape, 2006). This confidence can probably be attributed to better academic performance and the confidence of understanding complex material. The author points out that the gender-based classroom also presents female students with the tools and the information needed to strengthen social development (DePape, 2006).

In addition to the advantages of gender-based education for girls, there are also benefits associated with gender-based education as it pertains to boys. The author asserts that boys can realize two benefits of gender-based education. These benefits include a better rounded educational experience and a custom tailored learning environment (DePape, 2006). As it pertains to the former advantage, the author contends that boys enrolled in gender-based classrooms are exposed to new activities that would not be present in a traditional classroom environment. In addition the author insists that most males are more likely to try different or new activities when there are not any girls present. The author point out that boys do not feel that they are taking a risk in trying something new when there are no girls in the class (DePape, 2006).

The author further explains that while girls in single sex classrooms are more likely to try new things in the areas of math and science (DePape, 2006). Boys are more likely to try new things as it pertains to fine arts and language arts. The research concludes that such exposure gives mail students an education that is better rounded. The author further asserts that "coed classes tend to reinforce gender stereotypes, while single gender classes allow students to break free of those stereotypes (Sax, 2004). Males do not feel the need to act in accordance with certain gender roles and can gain a more positive educational experience.

In addition, without females in the classroom, males no longer need to bully other males to make themselves look better. The incidences of bullying by males are dramatically reduced in a gender specific classroom (DePape,2004)."

As with gender-based education for female students, gender-based education for males is also advantageous because it allows for custom tailored learning. The author explain that males are at an advantage when they have access to gender-based education because teachers can design the curriculum that is geared toward deductive reasoning, which is generally more conducive to the way that males learn. In addition the author points out that boys perform better academically in gender-based environments because they are naturally competitive. In general they will want to outperform one another. The author warns however, that this classroom competiveness has to be productive if it is to benefit male students.

Another tactic that is often used but is somewhat controversial is the use of confrontation is male gender specific classrooms. The author explains that confrontation works well with most males, where the teacher "gets in the face" of students to try and challenge them (Sax, 2004). Rather than retreating from the teacher, the male student will view it as a competition and try to win. The teacher can also adjust his or her teaching styles to accommodate the preferred learning styles of males. Teachers in male gender specific classrooms experience most success when they use loud voices and are much more aggressive (DePape, 2004)."

These facts related to gender differences and the advantages of gender-based education, have led some schools to adopt gender-specific classrooms. The hope in forming gender specific classrooms is that both male and female students can benefit greatly from gender specific education. Indeed gender-based education is popular at many different levels of education because of the academic and social benefits realized from the implementation of such a curriculum. The next few paragraphs of the literature review will focus on the implementation of gender-based education as it pertains specifically to middle school.

Middle school specifically

Although gender specific education is uncommon in public schools some school districts have instituted policies that embrace gender specific instruction. As it pertains to middle school specifically some schools have implemented gender specific policies into the classroom. In some instances these policies are instituted as it pertains to certain subjects (math and science). In other instances all subjects are gender specific education is school wide regardless of subject.

As it pertains to the middle school setting the gender-based education has taken root in places such as South Carolina. In South Carolina the gender-based program in middle school is realizing positive results. According to an article entitled "Single-gender classes garner good results" over 70% of students participating in single-gender education believe that it has assisted them in improving their aspirations, determination, and ability to succeed academically. In addition over 85% of the teachers surveyed believed that the self-confidence and participation of students has improved as a result of the gender-based education (Courrege, 2008).

Additionally over 75% of parents said the single sex classes enhanced their children's self-esteem and autonomy (Courrege,2008).

Although the practice of single sex education at the middle school level is popular it is not without controversy. In fact the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) has threatened to sue some school districts involved in such a curriculum.