Leadership in International Schools

¶ … Leadership Skills Impact International Education CHALLENGES OF INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION Practical Circumstances of International schools THE IMPORTANCE OF LEADERSHIP IN EDUCATION What is Effective Leadership for Today's Schools? Challenges of Intercultural Communication Challenges of Differing Cultural Values Importance of the Team Leadership Style LEADERSHIP THEORIES Current Leadership Research Transformational Leadership Skills-Authority Contingency Theories APPLYING LEADERSHIP IN AN INTERNATIONAL SETTING Wagner's "Buy-in" vs.

Ownership Understanding the Urgent Need for Change Research confirms what teachers, students, parents and superintendents have long known: the individual school is the key unit for educational improvement, and within the school the principal has a strong influence upon the nature of the school, the conditions under which students learn, and upon what and how much they learn.

Despite this agreement about the central role of the principal, there is little research concerning the characteristics of principals associated with effective leadership and with pupil accomplishment, and even less insight about how these characteristics might be developed and by what means, particularly for international school settings. This paper aims to contribute to that knowledge. INTRODUCTION By 2025, the United Nations (UN) estimates that 8.2 billion people will be living on earth (Overseas Family School, 2004). Of the world's 100 largest economies, 51 are transnational.

Every year, more than a million people move in-between Australia, Africa, Asia, Europe, and the United States. Capital cities have been home to a large cultural migration over the past two decades. The chart below shows which cities worldwide have a large percentage of ethnic make-up in their respective populations. Figure 1: Ethnic Make-up. SOURCE: Overseas Family School. (2004). International Schools Are Truly International. Retrieved from the Internet at http://www.ofs.edu.sg/about-ofs/articles/truly-international/. Multiculturalism also exists outside of cities.

International private schools are now starting to reflect a diverse population. Multiculturalism can be described as "a conversation among different voices," according to Harvard Professor, Henry Louis Gates, Jr. (Overseas Family School, 2004) In an international school setting, when a student greets classmates, "hello" takes on global proportions (Overseas Family School, 2004). Hi. Ni hao. Hola. Namaste. Dobri den. Bonjour. Al salaam aleikum. These are just a few of the words that may be used by student in an international school to say hello to one another.

However, while students may come from different nations and cultures, they all share the same planet and discuss similar topics. A multinational student population simply means there is no majority, and thus no minority (Overseas Family School, 2004). In this setting, students often lose any biased attitudes to other cultures, an attitude that promotes individual worth and respect, regardless of country, heritage, or background. Through shared academic experiences, international students learn to network and relate to global cultures.

The increasing number of international schools around the world is allowing parents to choose an alternative kind of education for their children - an education for the real world of global communication, international opportunity and cultural diversity (Lumpar, 2003). This is an education that extends beyond the confines of the classroom and sees in the learning process the chance for some remarkable lessons. International schools have a long history in the field of education but there are many different "types" of international school (Lumpar, 2003).

Some international schools serve a largely expatriate community and focus on teaching a set national curriculum that provides access to tertiary education back in a specific home country. Other international schools have far more diverse student populations and offer opportunities for young people to graduate into a world-wide educational environment. For the purpose of this paper, the term international school will be used to describe schools that serves the needs of expatriate families in non-English speaking countries.

Recently, there has been an increasing awareness amongst many international educators and parents, in both schools that focus on expatriate communities and those that do not, regarding the need for an education that offers more than a traditional academic curriculum (Lumpar, 2003). This is an approach to international boarding school education that offers a more child-centered and holistic approach to learning. These are schools that see an opportunity to specifically develop cross-cultural understanding, an international outlook and an ability to build relationships with people from different backgrounds and beliefs.

In an international school setting, students are exposed to diverse experiences and are encouraged to achieve their full potential across a variety of dimensions, academically, physically, spiritually and socially (Lumpar, 2003). In this light, school leaders encourage an environment that promotes a healthy international outlook. One of the great advantages of this approach to education is that, in everyday school life, students are naturally exposed to a variety of different cultures, promoting an open spirit of multicultural interest and acceptance.

International schools encourage students to reflect on the divisions which characterize so many of the world's problems to find values which see a common humanity behind the diversity. According to Dr. Jonathan Long, head teacher of an international school in Switzerland (Lumpar, 2003): "The nature of the problems the world needs to solve today cannot be solved at the level at which they were created. We need to see beyond the fragmented differences of culture, language and religion to a more fundamental reality.

One of the great advantages of an international education is that you can create an environment in which young people from different cultures, nationalities and languages are brought together in one place. They have the opportunity to learn that what makes them human is not their cultural identity, language, or religion alone but it is also something essentially spiritual that transcends all of these things.

In other words, they have the chance to recognize that there is a common humanity which transcends the differences at which world problems are often experienced today." Most international schools enable students to graduate to universities around the world, offering a wide variety of experience (Lumpar, 2003). Graduates also have lifelong access to their school's international network of social and business contacts. Their multilingual and international social skills can serve as a powerful tool to becoming influential leaders in a global setting.

Academic rigor is vitally important because academic qualifications are crucial to accessing a good university and professional career (Lumpar, 2003). International qualifications are very popular today and certainly help to promote a global perspective. In addition to academic rigor, successful people often pay tribute to those elements of a more rounded international education that exposed them to a wider variety of experiences and learning for life. One major challenge facing education in the 21st century is to educate young people for the "real world" of diversity and difference (Lumpar, 2003).

Whether these differences remain as the fragmented divisions of hatred and intolerance will depend to a large extent on the kind of education young people receive. An international education offers the opportunity to celebrate diversity in a spirit of understanding and tolerance and to develop a positive regard and awareness of other people. This must be one of the most important challenges facing the world today - it is a challenge which international educators aim to conquer.

A great deal of pressure is placed on today's international educators, particularly since literature on general schools shows that good leadership is key to successful schools. Many researchers recognize that school leaders put forth a powerful, if indirect, influence on teaching quality and student learning (Education Week, 2004). In a review of literature for the American Educational Research Association, Leithwood and Riehl (2003) revealed that school leadership has significant effects on student learning, second only to the effects of the quality of curriculum and teachers' instruction.

Case studies of successful schools indicate that school leaders influence learning primarily by stimulating effort around motivated goals and by establishing conditions that support teachers and that help students succeed (Togneri and Anderson, 2003). Additionally, Leithwood and Riehl (2003) hold that large-scale quantitative studies of education conclude that the effects of leadership on student learning are small yet educationally significant (Education Week, 2004). Even though leadership explains only about 3 to 5% of the variation in student learning across schools, this effect is nearly 25% of the total effect of all school factors.

In these studies, as in case studies, the effects of leadership seem to be mostly indirect: leaders influence student learning by helping to promote a vision and goals, and by ensuring that resources and processes are in place to enable teachers to teach effectively (Leithwood and Riehl, 2003). According to research, principals have a major influence on instructional change in their schools (Education Week, 2004). Their level of involvement often determines whether attempts to change instruction succeed (Riordan, 2003).

For instance, studies show that school leaders, particularly those that lead low-performing schools, are frequently ineffective in providing support and mentoring to improve instruction, and providing direction and resources for teacher learning and professional development both in and out of the school. This pattern continues despite research that identifies the importance of the principal's role as instructional leader. While its specific effects are hard to measure precisely, leadership is definitely of some importance (Education Week, 2004).

However, many people do not understand what leadership is and how it applies to the school environment.

In their 1997 study of visionary companies, James Collins and Jerry Porras define leaders as people who "displayed high levels of persistence, overcame significant obstacles, attracted dedicated people, influenced groups of people toward the achievement of goals, and played key roles in guiding their companies through crucial episodes in their history." This definition is very much in line with the definitions currently used for school leaders, although this definition has changed in recent years (Education Week, 2004).

Until recent years, most research assumed that leadership did not have to come from the school principal (Riordan, 2003). The realization that improving instruction requires shifts in the behavior of school leaders has resulted in a slew of new theories of school leadership and attempts at restructuring school organization. More emphasis is now placed on the complex idea of "distributed leadership" shared by multiple individuals at different levels of the organization (Riordan, 2003).

In this light, Spillane, Halverson, and Diamond (2001) hold that school leadership must be perceived as the cumulative activities of a broad set of leaders, both formal and informal, within a school, rather than as the work of one individual, such as the principal (Education Week, 2004). While the principal may be the top dog in a school, it is in everyone's interests to develop broad leadership capacity in their schools.

This "distributive" leadership has a variety of purposes, including expanding expertise across staff members, ultimately deepening efforts for instructional improvement (Supovitz and Poglinco, 2001). The following chart outlines qualities of a good leader. Because school principals are the leaders of the education provided in primary schools, they must display qualities of good leaders. They protect the reputation of their school by ensuring their staff delivers high quality education.

They are the leaders of: the delivery of the curriculum in individual classrooms and at a school-wide level; the assessment of student achievement, innovations and improvements in classroom practices; and the monitoring and evaluation of teacher performance.

What is Effective Leadership? Group Qualities Individual Qualities Shared purpose -- reflects the shared aims and values of the group's members; can take time to achieve Commitment -- the passion, intensity, and persistence that supplies energy, motivates individuals, and drives group effort Collaboration -- an approach that empowers individuals, engenders trust, and capitalizes on diverse talents Empathy -- the capacity to put yourself in another's place; requires the cultivation and use of listening skills Division of labor -- requires each member of the group to make a significant contribution to the overall effort Competence -- the knowledge, skill, and technical expertise required for successful completion of the transformation effort Disagreement with respect -- recognizes that disagreements are inevitable and should be handled in an atmosphere of mutual trust Authenticity -- consistency between one's actions and one's most deeply felt values and beliefs learning environment -- allows members to see the group as a place where they can learn and acquire skills Self-knowledge -- awareness of the beliefs, values, attitudes, and emotions that motivate one to seek change SOURCE: Leadership Reconsidered: Engaging Higher Education in Social Change, 2000.

Retrieved from the Internet at http://www.academy.umd.edu/publications/LeadershipReconsidered/LR%20-%20chart1.doc. The National Association of Secondary School Principals (NASSP, 2004) insists "the principal should provide leadership in the school community by building and maintaining a vision, direction, and focus for student learning (Education Week, 2004)." However, NASSP does not think that the principal should act alone.

Instead, according to NASSP, all schools should establish a governing council that involves students, parents, and staff members in key decisions to promote student learning and an environment that encourages participation, responsibility, and ownership. While not responsible for directing all aspects of every activity in a school or district, principals, administrators and other school leaders are more than just managers of staff and budgets (Education Week, 2004).

According to a comprehensive analysis of principal and superintendent leadership, most leadership theories and activities have assumed an overly narrow view of leadership, focusing mainly on the immediate support and supervision of teachers' instruction of students (Knapp et al., 2003). However, in practice, school and district leadership translates to creating powerful, equitable learning opportunities for students, professionals, and the system, and motivating or compelling participants to take advantage of these opportunities.

School leaders -- including staff developers, district coordinators, and mentor teachers as well as principals and superintendents -- can (Education Week, 2004): advance powerful and equitable student learning by: establishing a focus on learning; building professional communities that value learning; engaging external environments that matter for learning; acting strategically and sharing leadership; and creating coherence (Knapp et al., 2003). According to Education Week (2004):"This framework for school and district leaders is consistent with areas that administrators identify as critical to educational leadership.

For example, principals point to leadership needs in seven areas: instructional, cultural, managerial, human resources, strategic, external development, and micro-political (Portin et al., 2003). Similarly, NASSP (2004) has developed a self-assessment instrument for instructional leaders that includes questions about instructional direction, teamwork, problem solving, communication, and skill building." Due to the impact on school quality and student achievement, developing effective leaders of schools and districts is perceived as a main priority among researchers and policymakers (Education Week, 2004).

Many school leaders do not have the leadership skills required to carry out the tasks of improving instruction, according to Richard Elmore (2000), a professor of educational leadership at the Harvard Graduate School of Education. Instruction can be improved, according to Elmore, only if school leadership is redefined and changed to include the idea of distributed leadership. Unfortunately, an efficient way to develop educational leaders has yet to be discovered (Education Week, 2004).

As noted by the Center on Reinventing Public Education at the University of Washington (Portin et al., 2003), "A 'one-size-fits-all' posture toward leadership training or methods and styles of school leadership serves neither principals nor schools well. Different schools have different leadership needs, and policy and practice need to support a variety of leadership models (Portin et al., 2003)." According to Frederick Hess (2003), leadership, in education and in various other sectors, lacks concrete benchmarks to measure school leaders for adequacy (Education Week, 2004).

Thus, says Hess, states must remove most licensure requirements for principals and superintendents to give promising leaders from other fields an opportunity to provide effective leadership. A literature review conducted by the National Governors' Association (NGA) draws attention to the fact that there may be a limited supply of talented candidates to lead schools and districts, causing a major shortage (Mazzeo, 2003).

Separate research, observing that claims of a national shortage of principals appear overstated, reveals that the number of openings is expected to increase by 20% over the next five years and the number of retirements will probably increase significantly, according to statistics (Education Week, 2004).

This shortage is especially true for international schools, as faculty tends to have high turnover rates and leaders are often ill prepared to handle the heavy demands of an international http://www.edweek.org/context/topics/gallery/spacer.gif This study aims to produce a model of effective leadership in an international school setting. This study has two major purposes. The first purpose is to examine international schools to demonstrate how the requirements of effective leadership in an international school setting are unique.

The second purpose is to examine which character and behavioral traits of leaders that facilitate the creation of an effective leader-follower relationship in an international educational setting. Statement of the Problem Despite the importance of good leadership for international schools, there is a lack of research that specifically links these two concepts and explores these relationships in depth. The requirements of effective leadership in an international school setting are unique and should be addressed.

Such a study could fulfill the useful purpose of further clarifying these relationships in the context of school leadership and enable the researcher to create an effective model for leadership that can be used by international school leaders. Rationale The literature review on leadership indicates the significance of interpersonal relationships, for effective leadership. The study is based on the proposition that school leaders in international school settings are especially in need of strong interpersonal skills, due to the nature of the environment.

It is proposed that school leaders should be characterized by authenticity, respect, empathy and effective communication, which will ultimately lead to self-actualization and personal growth of followers (teachers, students, parents) and the ability of the followers to take up leadership opportunities on their own. The outcomes of the study are expected to add to the theoretical understandings of the nature of the leader-follower relationships, and how they operate in the field of educational leadership, with an emphasis on international education.

They could also have a positive impact on the way in which educational systems define the role of the principal and select people for that leadership role. It may also assist systems and universities in preparing people for leadership roles and developing them professionally within that role. Hypothesis and Research Question During a recent seminar of over fifty international school principals, each was given three minutes to list all their activities, in a typical day at school (Betts, 2002).

Without exception, each was able to list well over thirty-five activities; the only limitation being how fast one could write. When asked, however, to describe, in one sentence, the primary role of the international school principal, they proved to be a much harder task.

Responses ranged from "to make sure the teachers are happy," to "manage the day-to-day running of the school." This paper hypothesizes that the primary role of a principal is to ensure that students learn, as Roland Barth says, "to provide the conditions under which people's learning goes off the charts (Betts, 2002)." In the international setting, the activities principals engage in should be aimed at improving student learning (Betts, 2002). They can be arranged into two broad categories: proactive and reactive.

Within each of these two, there are activities that principals engage in that are very close to student learning and those that are different from student learning. The goal is to expand the repertoire of practices that are likely to have the strongest impact on improving student learning - to spend more time more effectively in the proactive, close-to-student-learning category. If this hypothesis proves to be true, it will set the stage for creating a basic model that international school leaders can use in their schools.

The main research question, therefore, is simple: What are the character and behavioral traits of leaders that facilitate the creation of an effective leader-follower relationship in an international educational setting? Once these traits have been established, a model can be created. Limitations of Study There were some limitations with respect to the analysis and data that may affect the accuracy of the results. For example, international schools were looked at as a whole. Because of the differences between various countries, one model may not apply to all nations.

However, the model was generalized for wide use. Definition of Terms Expatriate -- One who has taken up residence in a foreign country. International school -- As researched for this paper, international schools are schools around the world that cater for students from 3-18 years, range in size from 20 to 3,000 students and serve expatriate communities. There are normally a wide variety of cultures in these schools. School leader -- a school's principals, superintendents, and school board members.

INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS International schools and kindergartens are booming in countries around the world with more opening every year (Classmate Asia, 2004). These schools serve the expatriate community, and also appeal to immigrants returning from overseas and an increasing number of local families who are seeking an alternative to the uncertainties of the local education system, a more child-centered approach to learning, and qualifications that can lead their children to various overseas colleges and universities.

In the past two decades, many new international schools or school campuses have opened, offering international standards of education and excellent facilities. As a result, many families, both expatriate and local, are choosing to send their children to these schools rather than overseas to boarding school. It is less expensive, and they prevent their children from dealing with the difficulties of adjusting to boarding school life and living apart from their families.

While international schools vary in curricula and school philosophy, most reflect the increasing awareness among educators around the world that schooling is much more than teaching children in core academic subjects for the purpose of achieving high grades in exams (Classmate Asia, 2004). Educating the whole child, enabling them to reach their potential in academic, non-academic and social fields, and providing an environment where they can become independent, creative learners, are all key goals of international educators. Many countries offer a variety of international school settings.

For example, in Hong Kong, there is a wide range of international school systems to choose from: Australian, American, British, Canadian, Chinese, French, German-Swiss, Singaporean, Japanese, Jewish and Korean education are among those represented (Classmate Asia, 2004). There are also schools with strong Christian values, and non-denominational schools. Courses leading to the International Baccalaureate (IB), British A Levels, the post-16 International General Certificate of Education (IGCSE) administered from Britain, as well as Australian and Canadian national and regional examinations, are among those offered at secondary level.

Schools of specific nationalities allow students to transfer easily to schools or universities in their native countries. However, in most international school settings, there is also an increasing internationalism reflecting the global society of today. Schools such as the French International and German-Swiss run English language sections alongside those teaching students in their mother tongue. The increasing popularity of the International Baccalaureate as a highly regarded internationally recognized qualification is testimony to this.

Educational and economic principles, rather than political pressures or idealism are the major drivers of multiculturalism in international schools (Caitcheon Cross-Cultural Services, 2001). Therefore, school leaders must cater to their individual client bases. Successful education and healthy child development demands an environment that promotes a diverse cultural population. School administrators and their teams have the comprehensive task of developing and implementing policy, balancing the needs and demands of a variety of groups and maintaining a positive school environment. Many international schools cater to students from a variety of nationalities.

As a result, the cultural composition tends to be in a constant state of change (Caitcheon Cross-Cultural Services, 2001). International schools must respond to their multicultural student bodies in a different way to schools in "home countries" where the majority culture is reflected in schools and where the cultural composition is limited and stable. How can school leaders set standards and effectively govern a school with a culturally varied student community and a faculty that usually encompasses a number of different nationalities, including members of the host community (Caitcheon Cross-Cultural Services, 2001).

Should they insist on adherence to the cultural norm for their own culture and if so, how can they communicate this to students and parents? What educational options are available which allow equal participation in a setting with so many cultures? When students' cultural standards are so different, how can students and parents be encouraged to support school philosophy, teaching methods and activities? School leaders are faced with many cross-cultural situations that demand reactions that consider both the school philosophy and sets of conflicting values or beliefs (Caitcheon Cross-Cultural Services, 2001).

Cultural differences may arise in simple day-to-day issues, such as how to deal with cheating when 30% of the student body considers it acceptable or in fundamental values that are greatly different. Leaders must take into consideration whether an upcoming school play will offend religious sentiments. They must also understand how to react to international events when students and parents represent warring nations. Leaders must also be prepared to develop acceptable synergies, communicate a set of values and create a system as fair to all parties as possible.

School leaders face cross-cultural situations not experienced by the rest of the faculty, such as political issues relating to local and school communities and various authorities (Caitcheon Cross-Cultural Services, 2001). They must negotiate sets of values, beliefs and behaviors with members of the host community, schools boards, faculty, parents and students. In many cases, they may find themselves mediating cross-cultural conflicts in all of these areas. Administrators set an example for faculty members.

Their sensitivity to cultural issues and their judgment in dealing with these issues, which frequently arise in an international school setting, provide guidelines for both teachers and students. International schools function as communities more so than schools in home countries. Boarding schools serve as a "home away from home" for their students and local international schools are a focus for the whole family (Caitcheon Cross-Cultural Services, 2001).

Expatriate students are often unable to participate fully in the local community and the school becomes the focus for free time, as well as their school time. Parents also find opportunities in the school for making friends and using experience and energy in positive ways. Well-functioning communities are the result of a comprehensive interplay of administrations, faculty, parents and host community contacts. School leaders most frequently function in a coordinating role. Many first-time and even experienced expatriate families start their assignments with a combined sense of adventure and anxiety (Kittell, 1999).

Expatriate families are often reluctant and face a wide array of challenges that prompt many concerns -- and finding an appropriate school is often one of the greatest concerns. In many cases, the solution exists overseas; for others, the choice may be less obvious. Whatever route the parents choose, the final solution should be a facility that best suits the child's needs, unique learning abilities, and future prospects. Fortunately, educational alternatives for students abound in most major global business capitals (Kittell, 1999).

Some expatriate families choose local facilities while others stay within their home-country school system (if available). While local schools offer greater familiarity with the host culture, a home-country school (in the assignment location) keeps the child's education consistent with the national curriculum. For example, a logical choice for U.S. expatriates on a two-to-five-year assignment in a major foreign city is a U.S.-style international school. Such facilities may also offer a workable solution for expatriates of other nationalities.

International schools typically offer English-as-a-second-language instruction, allowing English-speaking beginners to integrate easily into mainstream English-language classes (Kittell, 1999). Globally mobile students benefit from educational continuity as they move from one country and international school to the next, along with a major advantage -- a sense of community for children from many different cultures who share a difficult academic experience and unique growth opportunities. According to Kittell (1999): "During my eight-year involvement with American international schools in the U.K., I've observed the transitions of thousands of students (age 3-18).

Each year, significant numbers arrive from Canada, Denmark, Japan, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, and the United States, with smaller representation from nearly 60 countries. These students quickly find common ground -- a ready acceptance of newcomers that sets many international schools apart from other options." Typically, in international schools, students come and go throughout the academic year, so that new students are not "new" for very long.

Nearly all of their peers recently experienced a similar relocation experience, creating a level of student-initiated support and interdependence that is not easily duplicated in local host-country schools. After settling quickly into their new setting, many students find opportunities rarely offered in regular schools (Kittell, 1999). Location is a major advantage, with organized travel exposing children to more of the world than their home-country friends may ever see. The sports teams from London's American-style international schools, for instance, compete with their peers throughout Europe and as far away as Egypt.

With competition for the world's top-tier universities and colleges more focused than ever, these extracurricular and academic experiences may help distinguish expatriate students from their home-country peers. As one recent London international school graduate said, "I found myself more than prepared for the academic rigors of college.

As a result, I was able to take on more leadership roles in extracurricular clubs, activities, and intramural sports, while maintaining a regular spot on the Dean's list (Kittell, 1999)." Most international schools provide a fully accredited educational program leading to a qualified pre-university degree (Kittell, 1999). Many offer the College Board's Advance Placement option, which is a requirement for admission to highly competitive U.S. universities and colleges; others replicate the U.S. high school experience or its equivalent.

Since 1970, Geneva's International Baccalaureate (IB) Office has provided an option for high-school students studying abroad (Kittell, 1999). Originally a European qualification, the IB diploma is now accepted in nearly 100 countries and offered in many leading U.S. suburban high school districts. Approximately 1,000 U.S. universities and colleges formally recognize the IB, and several -- including Stanford, Harvard and Yale, award advance standing to those who perform well on this two-year course.

Expatriate students from other countries have also used the IB to gain admission into their home country's state-sponsored universities, earning degrees at Oxford, Cambridge, the Stockholm School of Economics, and the University of Tokyo. According to recent research, whether the expatriate student attends a local, home-country affiliated, boarding, or international school, the experience plays a major role in his or her future development (Kittell, 1999).

Recent research on third-culture kids -- students who have lived outside their home cultures -- demonstrates that international school experiences can have a long-lasting, profound, and positive impact. Many former expatriate children find a way to stay globally active through future academic programs and employment choices that enable international travel.

There is an essential need to educate young people about re-entry itself - what it is, what it feels like, experiences and challenges that are likely to come up, and probable areas of difficulty," says Paul Maxfield, an American, who is co-founder of Families in International Transition (FIT), an organization which helps parents on the move (Weekly Telegraph, 2004). Maxfield is also deputy director and middle school principal of the Country Day School in Escazu, Costa Rica.

"I have seen so many third culture kids (TCKs) who have great difficulty because their parents move from country to country. They don't feel like they have any home." think that many international schools are getting better and better at orientation for new pupils, but preparation for departure is still lagging behind," says educator Mary Langford, Admissions and Communications director at Southbank International School in London (Weekly Telegraph, 2004). Langford's master's research focused on global nomad students and whether international educators were sensitive to their unique needs (Weekly Telegraph, 2004).

She discovered that while British global nomads share many of the same characteristics and challenges of children of other nationalities, "the stability of the boarding schools seems to diminish others." However, in my research, international educators placed the need for more teacher in-service training on issues of mobility at the top of the list of 11 priorities for supporting internationally mobile students," said Langford (Weekly Telegraph, 2004). "In many - probably most - international schools, though, support is sporadic.

One teacher may be aware of the needs of transient students while a colleague may be totally oblivious." Eighteen-year-old Pema Lhalungpa, a Canadian who just completed her first year at the University of British Columbia, moved to Vancouver from Bangladesh where her UNICEF-employed father worked (Weekly Telegraph, 2004). Soon after she started college, the family transferred to Nepal. Academically, Pema felt she was thoroughly prepared to enter a Canadian university (Weekly Telegraph, 2004).

"I was excited about it, about meeting new people, going out to concerts and participating in the Canadian way of life. The only thing that worried me was being so far away from my parents." Her biggest challenge turned out to be getting used to being alone (Weekly Telegraph, 2004). "Most of my friends called their parents at least once a week where I spoke to mine twice this entire year. E-mail just isn't the same.

During the holidays when parents came to pick my friends up, it was really hard not to feel too homesick. Second term was a bit better because I went home with a few friends for the long weekends, but even then, seeing their homes and their families made me miss mine. Now, at the end of the year, I still don't think I have gotten used to it." The academic, social and emotional benefits of an international school education can last forever.

According to Jeremy Murphy, a young Wall Street investment banker now enrolled at the Harvard Business School (Kittell, 1999): "International schools are communities in the truest sense. The great friendships among students and faculty, developed in the classroom, computer lab, and on sports trips, are what continue to mean the most to me today.

This close-knit community gave me a foundation formed of confidence and maturity to grow academically, professionally, and, most important, personally." CHALLENGES OF INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION Varis (1997) posed an important question: Can a cultural "minority" manager be an effective leader in a cross-cultural "majority" setting? By looking closely at Foreign or International Teaching Assistants (FTAs or ITAs) working at American universities, a recent survey sheds some insight into many settings where leaders have to cross some kind of cultural barrier and remain effective.

Researchers identified four major issues surrounding FTAs: "the source and effect of conflict with FTAs on our campuses, cultural challenges in cross-cultural teaching or presentation, indicators of success in cross-cultural leadership, and development of effective training assessment model for cross-cultural leadership." According to Varis (1997), during the 1992-1993 school year, more than 440,000 international students attended programs on American college and university campuses (Mathai 1994). These students were deemed the best and brightest from their countries.

In fact, at least one-quarter would return to national leadership positions in education, business, science, the military or government (Mathai 1994; Lau 1984). While numbers of internationals continue to increase each year on U.S. campuses, fewer and fewer American students are taking classes in math and science especially at the graduate level. As a result, many graduate teaching assistant (TA) positions are open for these international students and scholars.

In most cases, an FTA fills a leadership role, which in many ways is very similar to a business "expatriate" manager, who attempts to maintain authority as a minority in a majority culture (Mendenhall 1996). This correlation is key because of the implications to this broader question (Varis, 1997): "Can a cultural "minority" manager be an effective leader in a cross-cultural "majority" setting" Through an examination of the FTA issue, researchers provided insight into many settings where leaders had to cross some kind of cultural barrier and remain effective (Varis, 1997).

These may include: being a white European-American teaching in a predominantly inner-city minority school, or a person of color in a predominantly white school; performing a leadership function overseas or with a cultural group domestically; crossing generational cultures as a college professor or principal. Sources of Conflict Unclear communication. International students who are TAs on foreign campuses contribute significantly to the broadening of cultural perspective on the campuses on which they reside. FTAs typically represent the most promising professionals of their homelands.

In class, they often present viewpoints that may be much different from their supervising professor. Problems however emerge when communication is unclear (Bailey 1984 b). Mendenhall (1996) notes, "It is logical to assume that FTAs might encounter some difficulty in teaching American students because of differences in socialization surrounding teaching norms across cultures." The Oh No! Syndrome. Nagesh Rao (1995) coined the term, "The Oh No! Syndrome," which represents the typical reaction of an American student on the first day of class when they encounter an FTA.

This was the result of student-FTA encounters where communication difficulties caused students to get angry at the effort they had to make to understand a foreign accent or adjust to new cultural expectations of education (Fox and Gay 1991). As seen in Rao's study (1995) "when students' language expectations.. were confirmed, they felt more angry and anxious.. And were more likely to drop a class taught by a foreign TA." These conflicts spill out of the classroom into the campus media, to administration, parents and ultimately the legislature.

Cultural Challenges of Cross-Cultural Teaching More complex than language. The issue is much more complex than a simple difference in English speaking proficiency. Gertsen (1990) discovered that, while international workers have technical skills, they often lack the cross cultural skills needed to perform effectively in a multicultural environment. Beyond English proficiency, FTAs must adjust and cope with differences in cultural authority structures, social relationships, education systems, and educational practice, in addition to student resistance. Different education culture.

Trainers of FTAs observe that most FTAs come from educational systems that are built around an "all-knowing" teacher who teaches to passively receptive students. In this case, it is a challenge to learn to ask questions (or to be asked questions in the classroom), and to remember that the practice does not imply a lack of respect or incompetence in subject matter (Byrd 1986). According to one Asian student, in Asian culture, education is not "acquired or learned by the student, but it is taught by the teacher..

It is always a unilateral transmission. If the Asian (FTA) isn't confident of their English, the more they are questioned by American students, the more ambiguously he or she may teach the students so as to avoid any questions. (Kuroda 1986)." This type of educational philosophy and cultural background put these students at an initial disadvantage in a foreign educational setting, such as the U.S. system, in two ways. First of all, their previous experiences fail to prepare them for the American classroom.

They are confused by what seems to them an American idiosyncrasy: students may interrupt a professor during a lecture without hesitation for a variety of reasons, including the desire to add a stray thought to the professors presentation, a request for elaboration, or to challenge an idea. This is a difficult transition for many FTAs. The "new" ethnocentrism. On the "majority" or "host" culture's side, Kathleen Bailey (1984 b) points out a variety of factors contributing to conflict such as "an emerging new" ethnocentrism on the part of American students..

And an increasing attitude of consumerism." American students today are pragmatic and want the quickest and easiest route to their career. Fox and Gay (1994) add their conclusion that "English speaking students are not patient and perhaps somewhat prejudiced and claim to be unable to understand anything their TA says." Indicators of Success in Cross-Cultural Teaching or Leadership Getting past language.

Gayle Nelson in a 1990 review of FTA research indicates that English and cultural differences on the part of the foreign instructor have "been over-emphasized as both the cause of and the solution to FTA-student misunderstandings." According to Nelson, many successful teaching assistants realized that American college students preferred them when they could "use interactive, interpersonal teaching behaviors, and talk about their native culture in class." Frank Pialorsi writing to FTAs in the U.C.L.A.

TA newsletter concurs, "Much of the data on TAs and their students indicate that both groups place great emphasis on the language problem, especially pronunciation, without putting it in the totality of culture; however, many a non-native speaker who 'massacres' English is still able to get his message across with just the proper amount of candor, humor, or poignancy, because he has mastered other characteristics of the language and culture such as timing and jargon.

Perhaps most important, the listeners sense the acculturated non-native speaker's insight into their view of the world and their place in it (Pialorsi 1987)." Apparently, leaders can effectively cross cultural barriers. A growing body of research seeks to identify what the indicators of such success are. Factors presented by Mark Mendenhall (1996) focus on three developmental categories: self-efficacy, relational skills and perception skills. Self-efficacy describes the ability to retain self-confidence and trust in one's own abilities to handle new cultural situations as they come up.

Mendenhall refers to work by Hall and Lindzey (1978) which reveals, "Individuals with high levels of self-efficacy tend to persist in exhibiting new behaviors that are being learned, even when those efforts are not successful, longer than do individuals with less self-efficacy.. (they) use feedback to reduce uncertainty.. (and) correct their behavior to better correspond to expectations." Mendenhall's research demonstrates that self-efficacy levels increase with training. Relational skills refer to the ability to adapt interpersonal style to cross-cultural settings that are fitting to the host culture's norms.

In this light, successful leaders move closer to center between the two extremes of cultural difference. Basically, they adapt to their host culture. In effect they are interacting, creating a "third culture" or "negotiated reality" that becomes the new common ground for interaction. Perception skills give leaders the ability to separate or become aware of personal "learned" presuppositions that may contaminate evaluations of another culture's behavior. A person's environmental background and personal experience merge to become a "filter" that determines how new experiences are interpreted (Schell 1990).

A person that has the ability to identify what their filters are, begins to see past their immediate first impressions, asking self-examining "why" questions about their attitudes, which are the beginning of understanding a new cultural frame.

Other skills or assets identified include: ability to understand the local culture, gaining respect for the host culture, ability to tolerate differences, being willing to adapt your own methods to what is appropriate in the host setting, and making efforts to socialize within the culture outside of class or work settings (Kealey 1986)." Herman and Bailey (1991) conclude with this summary: "Successful teaching in a foreign culture involves a reduction of ethnocentric ideas, attitudes and behaviors, while at the same time maintaining a high level of academic (or professional) integrity." There are hundreds of independent schools located throughout the world (Hayden and Thompson, 1995a).

Although these schools are independent, they may have an international, American, British, French, German or national affiliations to their name and curriculum (Shafer, 1998). The school size in this system ranges from 20 to 2,000 students. According to Jameson (Shafer, 1998), " the closest analogy that can be drawn between this kind of overseas school and domestic schools is the independent country day school or boarding school. The overseas school has its own board of directors elected from the community that the school serves.

A headmaster or director is appointed by the school board and is responsible for the faculty, curriculum, and facilities (as cited in Wassersug, 1992, p. 12)." While international schools are rapidly increasing in popularity, many people are not familiar with the international school system (Shafer, 1998). "Perhaps one of the reasons for the relatively low profile of the field of international education is the manner of its growth.

This growth has be been relatively ad hoc, so that 'for the most part the body of international schools is a conglomeration of individual institutions which may or may not share an underlying educational philosophy' (Hayden and Thompson, 1995)," According to Patterson (1967): "The element of independence of these schools gives the parents of the overseas schools community the following advantages: 1) The parents are able to control the nature of the education which their children receive through election of board members... The U.S.

concept of independence of the American School, is in direct contrast with the French or German schools in Latin American countries. The latter schools are agents of their home governments who establish the curriculum, employ and assign teachers, and construct the buildings (Shafer, 1998)." International schools offer a general range of curriculum, yet they differ in the vision towards which their curriculum is directed (Shafer, 1998). Due to the nature of independent schools, these schools have "relative autonomy to determine its own philosophy and set its own operational practices" (Draper, 1981, p. 2).

Of the 1724 schools listed in the International Education Handbook (Findley, 1997), 933 are national schools. Approximately 763 non-defense affiliated American Schools operate in 100 countries around the world (Shafer, 1998). The U.S. Department of State, through the Office of Overseas Schools, assists 168 of these independent schools. The school size ranges from less than 20 students (using correspondence curriculum) to the more than 2,000 students enrolled at the American International School in Jakarta. American Overseas Schools are identified by their use of American materials and methods. While they work closely with American embassies and U.S.

corporations, these schools are private institutions and are generally not joined together under any type of administrative organization. The language of instruction is primarily English, yet the student populations are culturally diverse. American students are generally the minority (Gillies, 1995, p.3-4).

American-sponsored overseas schools (ASOS) were originally created to educate the children of employees of the United States government, companies, and by other American citizens living abroad, to both help reintegrating students in the American schools and culture when the family returned from living abroad and to serve the needs of children who wish to pursue higher education (Shafer, 1998). These schools enjoy relative autonomy, with accreditation providing them with standards that result in some similar underlying features (Shafer, 1998). This ensures quality control among the international schools.

Goodson reports that different accreditation agencies, which are sub-groupings within the Council of Regional School Accrediting Commission (CORSAC) are responsible for different areas of the world. Some Host-country nationals have seen American schools as advantageous for students in their countries (Shafer, 1998). Plaza (1946) wrote, "One of our goals was to enable people who had returned from study and training in the United States to improve the life of their own country.

Another was to use the school as a laboratory for experimenting with the process of change and for adapting ideas from the Unites States to practices that would fit into the Ecuadorian way of life. It has been very successful, indeed. Many of the practices introduced by that school are now part of the overall national educational program (as cited in Orr, 1983, pp. 29-30)." Some American schools maintain a strong orientation toward the United States (Shafer, 1998).

According to Hager (1978), although the schools had a multinational population, children were almost completely insulated and isolated from the Dutch culture in their school setting, and students did not integrate into activities involving Dutch students (p. 231) [sic]. Hager stated that very little interaction takes place between students at the American school and students of the host culture (p. 234).

(Wolf (1968) agreed, saying that keeping the children American presented no problems in these schools or in the community, since their exposure to the community in which they lived was so minimal as to have little positive effect (p. 220) [sic] (as cited in Stoddart, 1980, p. 39). Wolf (1968) reported similar examples in Ankara, Turkey where the Turkish language was not taught in any of the American schools" (Stoddart, 1980, p. 46). Often, foreign students resisted efforts to learn the host country culture and language (Shafer, 1998).

According to Nash (1970), the resistance to include subjects relating to the host society in the curricula of some of the schools was significant. Nash revealed that the schools in Ciudad Condal experienced problems of ethno-centricism, especially among the adolescents. "They tended to think that the United States was the center of the universe and that learning about a foreign culture was a waste of time." Many students resisted studying Spanish and the schools had to focus on counteracting negative attitudes towards topics relating to the host society (Stoddart, 1980, pp. 45-46).

While most ASOS schools have traditionally oriented themselves towards the U.S., in recent decades there seems to have been a gradual shift in their perception of their mission (Shafer, 1998). Because these schools "developed more independently, they had their own distinct identities, with ever increasing numbers of students from other lands, [and] the private, American sponsored schools, gradually [are becoming] more international in nature" (Birch, 1985, p. 2).

Over the past decade, the nature of the international community has evolved: more and more new countries are sending their citizens to different parts of the world, increasing the diversity of the pupil population (Shafer, 1998). In the world's largest cities, the number of Americans in overseas posts is diminishing, in some places rapidly. The U.S. tax-law changes have increased the tendency to hire qualified local nationals. As a result, a de-Americanized international community has resulted (Gellar, 1981, p. 22).

During the last decade, the decline in the number of American students in United-States-type schools abroad, combined with an increase in the number of host-country and third-country children, has presented some schools with operational and philosophical challenges that demand effective leadership (Shafer, 1998). According to Gellar (1981), "there is every indication that the international school movement will grow, that many national overseas schools will of necessity become more international.

More and more of these schools will come to realize that they have a major and permanent role to play in the education of the children of the internationally mobile community -- a group that will not diminish in size or influence. These trends will,...in the area of curriculum, make more urgent the need for collaborative efforts between teachers and scholars to revise or develop new syllabi with a less parochial view of what is important and of what the world and man are (Gellar, 1981, p.

24)." With the high-speed growth in the number of families moving around the world during the last two decades as a result of the global expansions of commerce, trade and humanitarian relief, as well as the military and diplomatic infrastructure required to support these activities, researchers have become more and more curious about the development of international schools and the international education that many multinational expatriate communities seek for their children (Shafer, 1998).

International schools One conception of what an ideal international education was introduced by Robert Leach in 1969, who viewed these schools as places where the "spirit of internationalism" is a value that should permeate these schools in ways that guarantee no one nation-state domination (Shafer, 1998). Leach applied this value by a model that offered details on how to insure the "spirit of internationalism" through the school staff, curriculum, goals, student body, and governance: his "ideal" (Grant, Kuhns, & Pickert, 1995, p. 502).

Leach created 16 "ideal-type" elements for international schools that addressed the constitutive processes of these schools (Shafer, 1998). According to Shafer, they could be arranged into three basic categories: International schools should hold membership in the International Baccalaureate Organization. International schools should have a multinational student body, faculty/staff, board, and administration, International schools should follow an international mission and emphasize a tolerance for differences, especially religious differences.

"The school should operate as a living educational laboratory within an international setting, with as many international influences as possible, transcending geographic or cultural boundaries." Hayden and Thompson (1995a) later revealed that the conceptual framework that Robert Leach created in 1969 still continued to be a crucial part of international schools in the mid-1990's (Shafer, 1998). The results from Hayden and Thompson's study suggest that funding for the school need not be multinational to support a spirit of internationalism.

Nor was there strong agreement among the respondents that the schools retain membership in the International Baccalaureate Office. "It is apparent however, that the student interaction must also include the necessary element of a multinational student body within which the student may interact" (Grant, Kuhns, & Pickert, 1995, p. 509). Schools with a more international curriculum often blend in elements of the host country and the students' third country backgrounds as part of the curriculum and environment.

Some schools consciously renounce national identity, and operate a system specifically adapted to local and current needs, or even to ideological innovative patterns (Shafer, 1998). By deliberately modifying their culture, these schools show their sensitivity to its importance. Social culture is both a set of markers by which a group of people recognizes their commonality, and a medium through which the group continues to share elements, present and future (Pearce, 1998, p. 47).

A recurring pattern was seen in participating schools -- the value of internationalism realized in procedural features of the school, despite the structure in which that value was manifested (Grant, Kuhns, & Pickert, 1995, p. 509). International schools have a variety of strategies, many of which are very good at involving families in school life (Shafer, 1998). Among the expatriates, they find many competent professionals whose 'trailing spouse' status leaves them with a lot of free time and valuable skills.

These people can act as project leaders, but they will need some balancing influences to ensure that other cultures with different attitudes to schools, different languages or communicative styles, and different concepts of duty are not marginalized in the parent-school organization (Pearce, 1998, p. 57). Over the past five years, Hayden and Thompson (1996) have held a prominent position in the move to specify the underlying principles of an international education (Shafer, 1998).

The Universals of International Education are schools in which the following exist: diversity of student cultures within the school teacher as exemplars of international-mindedness exposure to other different cultures outside school balanced formal curriculum management regime value-consistent with institutional philosophy (Hayden & Thompson, 1996, p.55) Hayden and Thompson (1997) compared international schools and European schools and discovered that diverse staffing did not have as large an effect towards creating an international education as community interaction did, although curriculum offered in the host country language was a main entry for having further interactions in that country (Shafer, 1998).

For five items, however, students from international schools worldwide attached a significantly higher level of importance than by students from international schools based in Europe or European independent schools: being encouraged to try new experiences from other cultures. A school sponsoring of projects in less developed countries. A teachers setting an example of "being international." taking the same examinations as a taken by students in many other countries (Hayden & Thompson, 1997, p. 468).

However, according to many international educators, the label of the school title does not always point to the orientation or type of education that students receive (Shafer, 1998). Hayden and Thompson (1995c) revealed that students could have attended a school with the label "international" yet not felt that they have received an international education, while those who attended schools which lacked that label may have felt they received an international education.

In their 1995c study, Hayden and Thompson attempted to identify the perceptions of students who had recently graduated from international schools from around the world. The main research questions were as follows: How did they view such topics as "international attitude" and what were the essential features of an international education? The findings from their survey of undergraduates revealed that there are more important ways than curriculum that students can experience in order to experience an international education (Shafer, 1998).

"When asked how they would feel if they found those views completely distasteful, and then if these views were translated into completely unacceptable practice, those who had experienced an international education were in each case markedly more prepared to be tolerant than those who had not -- though in both cases their level of tolerance gradually decreased as the issue was pressed (Hayden & Thompson, 1995c, p. 396)." Similar results occurred in the area of international attitude in relation to one's own national system and set of values (Shafer, 1998).

Those with an international education background strongly agreed that an international attitude and a strong identification with one national system and set of values could be held simultaneously, while those without an international education background also agreed, though to lesser extent (Hayden & Thompson, 1995c, p. 396). Stoddart (1980) found that the following "forces" acted to integrate schools participants (Shafer, 1998): 1. Organizations with altruistic aims 2. Mixed marriages 3. Effort and permanence (excerpted from Stoddart, 1980, pp.

221-226) In summary, Fraser and Brickman (1968) provide a basic explanation of what an international education may offer to students (Shafer, 1998). "[An international education] connotes the various kinds of relationships -- intellectual, cultural and educational -- among individuals and groups from two or more nations, (being) a dynamic concept (which) involves a movement across frontiers, whether by a person, book or ideal (as cited in Hayden and Thompson, 1995, p. 17)." Practical Circumstances of International schools When looking at international schools, many "practical circumstances"(features that appear on a daily basis) apply (Shafer, 1998).

Most international schools are small and housed in buildings that are old or were not built as schools. However, this can be a positive thing. "A change which demands a great expenditure of time and energy in a large school may be accomplished in a small school in only one informal conversation (Gellar, 1981, p. 24)." Stoddart (1980) described the following obstacles, which prevented creating good schools (Shafer, 1998): severe financial problems o distance from the U.S.

[which created hiring difficulties and an inability to obtain adequate materials] high mobility [which prevented continuity] poor administration. The greatest challenge concerned the workload. International schools are overwhelmed with responsibilities, obligations, program concerns, hiring difficulties, salary inequities that relegated intercultural relations to a minor place in their priorities (Stoddart, 1980, p. 294) (Shafer, 1998). In this light, good leadership is essential.

According to Gillies (1994), Martin Felton, President, Association of American Schools in South American, provided a synopsis of the dilemma (Shafer, 1998): "Given the reliance on local faculty (70% in our case), as well as the continuity they represent, professional development is at the top of this list of key issues. This is a continuing, long-term need and one for which solutions are costly.

If dealt with on an individual basis, it generally means extended time (requiring a leave of absence) or multiple shorter periods (summers) in the U.S., both which involve travel, educational, and support costs. If dealt with on a group basis, it means an extended commitment to bringing consultants down on an ad hoc or university connected basis. This is also costly and has the added disadvantage of placing the school at the mercy of the quality (or lack of) the particular consultant or professor (p.

9) (as cited in Gillies, 1994, pp. 2-3)." With the recent rise of the Internet and e-mail, many of the challenges presented by distance and cost are reduced (Fail, 1996, p. 36), leading to more of an esprit de corps among international schools (Shafer, 1998). This distance can have a positive effect on how curriculum is developed. According to Gellar, in international school setting, "there is what might be called a 'Hindu' (eclectic) approach to curriculum development -- adaptation through incorporation.

There are many paths to learning and no single one ought necessarily to be excluded. There is a willingness to experiment with new courses and new approaches. The inevitable turnover of teachers occurs far less often than in the past, helps to encourage this willingness, but it just as often results from the fact that the traditional approaches and materials don't work (Gellar, 1981, p. 24)." The schools are often teacher-centered, not curriculum-centered or even child-centered (Shafer, 1998).

One major characteristic of international schools is the excellent quality of their teaching staffs, and this occurs for several reasons. Teachers who choose to live and work in a foreign country are those who require the least embrace the insecurity and initial inconvenience of life in unfamiliar surroundings. They enjoy working with children from many cultures and encourage their students to value their cultural differences, while at the same time learning from their presence in the same classroom their similarity.

It is frequently the nature of the interaction between teacher and child that determines the quality of the student's education, and, in this light, the character and personality of the teacher is the determinant. The mere act of choosing to teach in an international school is a positive indication of such teachers (Gellar, 1981, pp. 23-24). However, the high turnover among staff is a major challenge for international schools (Shafer, 1998). "Perpetual turnover of both faculty and staff is one of the greatest difficulties of working in an international school...

Because it's likely that a new teacher will enter the department every year, it's essential to have a curriculum that can be studied and taught from with twenty-four hours, if necessary, by a new faculty member" (Bell and Purcell, 1986, p. 32)." The longer one stays abroad, the more difficult it becomes to return to the United States, especially if certification has lapsed, if new requirements have been introduced by state boards of education, and if one is unfamiliar with current teaching trends in the U.S. (Bell and Purcell, 1986, p.

34)." Schools leaders can tackle this challenge by choosing to hire locally (Shafer, 1998). However, this practice leads to one point of contention in the area of staffing: the fact that locally-hired teachers are usually paid far less than teachers who are recruited from outside the country (Richards, 1998, p. 178). According to Stoddart (1980), the reason why the locals are paid less was because "the education they received in Mexico to prepare them to be teachers was not considered to be equal to that of American teachers" (Stoddart, 1980, p. 8).

This can apply to many regions of the world. Good school leaders recognize that one of the key members on the staff of many overseas schools is the guidance counselor (Shafer, 1998). The role of counselor in these schools tends to center less on establishing a "therapeutic relationship with the student and had evolved to more of a consultant role" Edwards, 1989, pp. 20-21).

The main goal of a guidance counselor in international schools is to help students adjust to the new school setting and prepare for reentry into their home country school system (Shafer, 1998). At the high school level, their role is to help students enroll in university programs. Typically, most school support programs center around the English as a Second Language classroom. "Fewer schools refer to special educational needs services for learning disabled students" (Haldimann, 1998, p. 132).

However, recent ECIS (European Council of International Schools) guidelines are "compelling international schools to create programs for special learning needs students" (Haldimann, 1998, p. 133) as part of the ECIS accreditation process. The following statement is part of those guidelines. There shall be effective procedures for identifying and addressing the special needs of students with learning disabilities (Shafer, 1998). The school shall have an adequate number of trained special needs personnel.

If children with learning disabilities or who have remedial needs are admitted, the school shall provide specific curriculum and programmes to meet identified needs. (as cited in Haldimann, 1998, p. 133)." Guidance counselors are usually the people who screen students when they first enter the school (Shafer, 1998). In a study of school counselors in the Near East/Southeast Asia NE/SA educational organization regional area, Edwards (1989) discovered the following: 44% of those surveyed did try to follow U.S. Public Law 94-142, while 51% did not.

Roughly half of the schools used a referral team for placement and assessment, while the other half did not. But 94% of those survey did screen for learning disabilities when the student first applied to the school. 75% of the time it the counselor who gave the screening exam.

69% responded that they would admit students who had been already identified by their previous school as having a mild learning disability (if they were only two to three years below grade level); 22% said they would not; and only 8% said they would admit these students sometime (Edwards, 1989, p. 113). Discussion In the past two decades there has been a gradual shift in the views on how families might interact with the new cultures they encounter during their stay abroad (Shafer, 1998).

They may see themselves as needing to interact on a temporary or more permanent basis with the Host-Country Nationals (HCNs) and Third-Country Nationals (TCNs) in their new environment. While the original intent for founding international schools may have been for maintaining a sense of culture for expatriate students, many leaders are seeing a shift in the nature of these schools to better fit the needs and backgrounds of its international clientele.

The environmental factors seem to have such a strong effect in shaping the lives of internationally mobile students because contact leads to dissonance; and dissonance results in a larger world view being created so that one can incorporate this new knowledge into one's understanding (Shafer, 1998). In this age of closer contact, these types of cross-cultural experiences may be of benefit everyone because they lead to deeper understanding about the world.

While the process of socialization is a main focus of the mission of schools, it is interesting to note that the successful coping strategies used by expatriate students and their families actually complement many of the goals of an "international education" (Shafer, 1998). "While it is quite easy to speak of the need for an international educational curriculum, as so often the case, the "Devil is in the details." How one goes about putting this into practice is the most challenging part of making this philosophy a reality.

The community service and curricular features that are an embedded piece of the International Baccalaureate (K-12) curriculum and other types of global studies go a long way towards fostering that goal. Interpersonal connections require a perceptual understanding of what a global perspective actually looks like." In this manner, curriculum can augment the interpersonal needs of the students as they attend these schools. Perhaps in the end, it will be as Drucker (1995) says, that in fifty years we won't recognize this new world that lies before us (Shafer, 1998).

Every few hundred years throughout Western history, a sharp transformation has occurred. In a matter of decades, society altogether rearranges itself -- its worldview, its basic values, its social and political structures, its arts, its key institutions. Fifty years later a new world exists. And the people born into that world cannot even imagine the world in which their grandparents lives and into which their own parents were born (Drucker, 1995, p. 75) (as cited in Hallinger and Leithwood, 1998, p. 1).

THE IMPORTANCE OF LEADERSHIP IN EDUCATION Recent reforms in education have focused much energy on improving instruction and increasing the knowledge and skills of classroom teachers (Policy Forum on Educational Leadership, 1999). However, these same reform efforts have often overlooked an equally important lever for educational change -- the nature and quality of leadership provided by school leaders, which, for the purpose of this paper, are a school's principals, superintendents, and school board members.

The principal has considerable influence over the environment in the school building, where the most meaningful actions in education take place. A good principal can create a climate that fosters excellent teaching and learning, while an ineffective one can quickly thwart the progress of the most dedicated reformers. The superintendent is the highly visible figure on the front lines of education who articulates the vision for and oversees the activities of a large organization.

Today's superintendents not only must be skilled in their interactions with the school board, principals, and teachers, but also must be able to communicate well with policymakers, parents, the media, and the public. School board members set the policies that make or break the achievements of other leaders and teachers. They have considerable power over the things that matter in a local school system, but often they are the leaders who have the least formal training for their roles. TABLE: SCHOOL LEADERS SOURCE: (June, 1999).

Policy Brief: Effective Leaders for Today's Schools: Synthesis of a Policy Forum on Educational Leadership. The Policy Forum on Educational Leadership. Retrieved from the Internet at http://www.ed.gov/pubs/EffectiveLeaders/foreword.html. Each of these positions is changing dramatically, as states, countries and school districts increase standards for student learning, reform curriculum and instruction, educate a more diverse student population, decentralize management, and confront citizens who are losing confidence in public education.

Today's leaders face many demands that they have not been trained for and that even the most experienced among them have difficulty meeting. In international school settings, the pressure on leaders is even greater, as they are dealing with expatriate students from a variety of cultures and backgrounds. This presented many unique challenges to the international school leader.

Research traditions in leadership can be broken down into six major categories (Bensimon, 1989): trait theories, which attempt to identify specific personal characteristics that appear to contribute to a persons ability to assume and successfully function in positions of leadership; power and influence theories, which consider leadership in terms of the source and amount of power available to leaders and the manner in which leaders exercise that power over followers through either unilateral or reciprocal interactions; behavioral theories, which study leadership by examining patterns of activity, managerial roles, and behavior categories of leaders -- that is, by considering what it is that leaders actually do; contingency theories, which emphasize the importance of situational factors, such as the nature of the task performed by a group or the nature of the external environment to understand effective leadership; cultural and symbolic theories, which study the influence of leaders in maintaining or reinterpreting the systems of shared beliefs and values that give meaning to organizational life; and cognitive theories, which suggest leadership is a social attribution that permits people to make sense of an equivocal, fluid, and complex world." Perhaps one of the most effective organizational typologies from the perspective of leadership implies that organizations can be viewed through four different vantage points or coherent perspectives, identified as frames (Bolman and Deal, 1984).

The structural frame focuses on formal roles and relationships, the human resource frame is based on the needs of people, the political frame considers the conflict over scarce resources, and the symbolic frame looks at organizations as cultures with shared values (Bensimon, 1989). Recent studies suggest that the understanding of leadership in academic organizations, at least among scholars, may be shifting, from a rational perspective toward a cultural and symbolic perspective (Bensimon, 1989).

The manifestation of symbolic leadership is a major focus of today's research, as demonstrated by works concerning the role of principals in the management of meaning, the construction of institutional reality, and the interpretation of myths, rituals, and symbols. Cultural and symbolic theories demand attention because they show leadership in a light that is highly compatible with the characteristics of academic organizations.

"The ambiguity of purpose, the diffusion of power and authority, and the absence of clear and measurable outcomes are but a few of the constraints faced by college presidents and other administrative leaders (Bensimon, 1989). Viewed from a rational perspective, these constraints make the presidency appear as an impossible job.

Presidents who consider their role from a symbolic perspective will be less concerned about displaying bold leadership to leave their imprint on a campus, more concerned with making marginal improvements and helping campus constituents make sense of an equivocal world." What is Effective Leadership for Today's Schools? During a recent forum, participants identified several characteristics that define effective leadership for modern schools (Policy Forum on Educational Leadership, 1999). The majority of participants agreed that the most important characteristic of an effective leader is the ability to provide instructional leadership.

However, statistics show that this is also the role for which principals and superintendents are least well prepared; some studies suggest that the majority of current principals are not skilled instructional leaders. In the case studies described at the forum, school leaders devoted most of their time, energy, and talents to improving the quality of teaching and learning (Policy Forum on Educational Leadership, 1999). Leaders in these districts have a strong understanding of teaching and learning, including new teaching strategies that focus on problem solving and student knowledge.

Good instructional leaders have a strong commitment to success for all students, and are particularly devoted to improving instruction for groups of students who are not learning. In successful school environments, school leaders understand how to evaluate instruction and give feedback that encourages teachers to teach better and students to learn more (Policy Forum on Educational Leadership, 1999). These leaders get the entire school involved in what good teaching looks like and whether students are doing quality work.

In many cases, the work of everyone in the district, including the superintendent and principals, is judged in terms of teacher growth and demonstrable gains in student learning. In districts like these, the management responsibilities that traditionally define a principal's job are the minimal level of expectations, although some superintendents have attempted to reduce bureaucratic burdens to give principals more time for instructional duties.

"We automatically expect the trains to run on time," explained Superintendent Michael Riley, from the suburban district of Bellevue, Washington (Policy Forum on Educational Leadership, 1999), "but the real job is to move instruction forward." Instructional leadership does not hold the same meaning for all superintendents and principals, and may take different forms in different districts (Policy Forum on Educational Leadership, 1999). In many successful districts, both superintendents and principals are a common presence in the classroom, with the principals being closely involved with the teaching in all classrooms.

In other districts, the superintendent is responsible for setting the vision and goals for teaching and learning, while principals are in charge of instructional leadership. In some districts, principals assume the role of instructional facilitator. For instance, rather than spending a lot of time in each classroom, a principal may assign teacher-leaders, who work directly with every teacher and have frequent meetings with the principal. According to the Policy Forum on Educational Leadership (1999): "Whatever the arrangement, becoming a true instructional leader does not mean usurping the job of the teacher.

Instead it means that leaders will provide teachers with informed feedback, guidance, support, and professional development that will help them do their jobs better." Forum participants had a variety of opinions regarding how much emphasis educational leaders should place on instructional leadership, relative to management skills and other critical competencies (Policy Forum on Educational Leadership, 1999). Many effective leaders could not truly be called instructional leaders, but they are effective because they know how to "run interference" and how to nurture good teaching and learning amid external pressures.

However, some leaders who have excellent instructional leadership skills have been unsuccessful because they are not good managers (Policy Forum on Educational Leadership, 1999). Many aspects of today's educational system "are almost toxic to teaching and learning," according to Joel Shawn of the California Center for School Restructuring. In this environment, it takes more than just instructional leadership to nurture good teaching. Running a district or school today is a very demanding job. Good leaders need both good management and financial skills.

Successful administrators need the ability to negotiate their way through frequently conflicting demands of various bureaucracies, parents, politicians, and constituent groups. Many school leaders are more familiar with management than instruction because their training is in management (Policy Forum on Educational Leadership, 1999). However, the management skills required today are not the same ones taught in traditional administration preparation programs.

According to Paul Houston of the American Association of School Administrators, "today's leaders must shift their focus from the B's (budgets, books, buses, bonds, and buildings), to the C's (communication, collaboration, and community building)." One important dimension of leadership is the ability to communicate and collaborate with various people both inside and outside schools (Policy Forum on Educational Leadership, 1999).

The "top -- down" model of a school leaders who makes decisions and gives others the responsibility of carrying them out does not reflect the true distribution of power or source of motivation in today's schools and communities. Researchers who study educational leadership are now viewing leadership as a shared process that involves leaders, teachers, students, parents, and community members. Effective leaders can unite people around important goals and inspire them to collaborate to accomplish these goals.

A good leader has many ways of connecting with others and knows how to build communities that promote change and eliminate institutional barriers to teaching and learning. Today's school leaders must have the articulate a vision of where their educational system is going and a plan for meeting their goals (Policy Forum on Educational Leadership, 1999). Understanding how to actualize school change is another important leadership skill. Effective leaders create change by taking risks and by encouraging people to challenge their beliefs about how things work and what can be done.

Often, a major symbolic gesture can stimulate others to view their roles in a different light. Diane Lam, Superintendent of the San Antonio Public Schools, asked principals to come to the first day of back-to-school meetings with ideas for a model community service project and prepared for outdoor work. Each team of principals was given up to $50 to design and carry out a service project. The groups came up with some great ideas, and gained a better sense of the service orientation of leadership.

School leadership is crucial to the success of a school or school system (Learning Point Associates, 1999). Two decades ago, the effective schools research (Purkey & Smith, 1983) documented that in schools where students performed better than expected based on poverty and other demographic characteristics, a "dynamic" principal was leading the facility. More recently, strong leaders are seen as an important part of turning around poorly performing schools, implementing reforms, and motivating teachers and students in weak demographic areas.

While it is difficult to show a direct link between school leadership and student achievement (the most widely accepted measure of school success), a model of what makes a good leader is emerging (Learning Point Associates, 1999). A recent forum of the National Institute on Educational Governance, Finance, Policymaking, and Management (1999) described an effective school leader.

Consistent with the observation that the a school leader's responsibility is multidimensional, the forum identified areas in which school leaders must have skills: "(1) instructional leadership; (2) management; (3) communication, collaboration, and community building; and (4) vision development, risk taking, and change management." Many school reformers identify one of the key characteristic of an effective school leader as the ability to provide strong instructional leadership. "Instructional leadership includes the design of instructional strategies, supervision and evaluation of programs, and the development of curriculum and graduation requirement (Learning Point Associates, 1999).

Thus, principals must have a deep understanding of the processes of teaching and learning including knowledge of new teaching methods, student construction of knowledge, and skills in problem solving. In addition, good leaders must devote a large portion of their time and energy to improving teaching and learning." According to Learning Point Associates (1999), recent research suggests that certain tasks are characteristic of instructional leaders: those related to school performance, such as making regular classroom visits, communicating instructional goals, and promoting discussion of instructional issues (Heck, 1992).

Effective school leaders also pay attention to indicators of student achievement. These principals are skilled observers of instruction and are able to give valuable feedback in ways that encourage and motivate teachers to improve their teaching methods. They create a school-wide dialogue around models of good teaching and quality student work, and everyone is accountable for student performance.

A recent study of highly effective schools in New York City (Teske & Schneider, 1999) suggests that within these schools, there is a culture defined and sustained by a combination of strong, consistent leadership and strong community support (Learning Point Associates, 1999). Although the specific mission of a school and pedagogical approaches may vary, effective schools have a clearly articulated vision. This vision permeates all aspects of school culture with consistency, clarity, and stability.

Principals in these effective New York schools also have many of the characteristics of entrepreneurs: they take risks, seize opportunities, and work to establish a cohesive, likeminded network of parents, teachers, and staff." Challenges of Intercultural Communication The field of intercultural communication has its roots in anthropology and linguistics. Hall (1959, 1976, 1983) used descriptive linguistics as a model for intercultural communication (Cassiday, 2002). Ethnocentrism, which translates to "centrality of culture," is one of the biggest challenges to effective intercultural communication.

According to Cassiday (2002): "Because we learn our culture from the inside out, we tend to assume that the way we see the world is correct and we often assume that everyone else sees the world the way that we do. Members of each culture tend to believe their own cultures are more civilized and more important than other cultures. An ethnocentric view serves the important purpose of strengthening the group. Ethnocentrism provides group members with the feelings of security that are necessary for survival.

Unfortunately, an ethnocentric worldview is the basis for explicit and implicit assumptions about cultural superiority and often the source of cross-cultural misunderstanding and conflict." Another obstacle to effective intercultural communication comes from the differences between external and internal culture. According to Cassiday (2002): "We learn our first culture from the inside out, starting at birth. We learn another culture from the outside in, starting with the external aspects of the culture.

Too often, training programs provide expatriates with information on external culture, while the internal cultural factors go unaddressed." External culture includes arts, social, economic, and political institutions. The external aspects of culture can also be studied in history, geography, political science, and liberal arts. Understanding the external aspects of a culture builds a strong knowledge base, promoting greater understanding. The internal, subjective aspects of culture that are implicitly learned present greater challenges in international education (Cassiday, 2002).

Internal culture describes subjective knowledge that is unconsciously held, or knowledge that exists outside of the immediate awareness of individuals of a particular culture. The internal or subjective aspects of a culture include the learned patterns of values, beliefs, assumptions, and behaviors. Individuals who study solely in their homeland do not have the opportunities to examine subjective aspects of their own culture as those who venture outside of their familiar surroundings (Cassiday, 2002). Their internal cultural beliefs and related behaviors exist at the subconscious level and may be taken for granted.

They may not understand why things are the way they are; they simply believe that they just are. Cultural self-awareness means understanding one's internal culture and state of mind, as well as developing an understanding of other cultures (Cassiday, 2002). By bringing conscious awareness to one's cultural values, beliefs, and assumptions, it is easier to understand one's own actions and reactions toward other cultures. According to Adler (1997), Hofstede (1997), and Stewart (1991), cultural self-awareness is a key intercultural competence needed for cross-cultural effectiveness.

Challenges of Differing Cultural Values According to Rokeach (1973), cultures, institutions, in addition to personal and shared histories, influence people's perceptions of the world (Cassiday, 2002). Values serve as filter through which reality is seen. It is understandable that cultural conflict may exist when core values, beliefs, and assumptions about reality vary in different countries. When individuals visit foreign lands as tourists, these differences can be interesting and exciting. However, when living in a new culture, the challenges of adjustment and adaptation are greater and possibly more frustrating.

Hofstede (1997) conducted a research project involving IBM employees in 50 different countries (Cassiday, 2002). From the analysis of his data he identified five dimensions of culture. According to Hofstede, personal and professional effectiveness can be improved by use of this cross-cultural values framework. The five cultural dimension fall along a continuum, which holds tension between the distant points or positions. Identifying possible sources of cultural conflict on a values continuum may aid the development of a strategy to increase the leader's effectiveness.

Cross-Cultural Leaders in the 21st Century The experience of living and working within another culture challenges a person's inherent ethnocentric values, beliefs, and assumptions (Cassiday, 2002). To function successfully, international leaders must deal with the uncertainty of multiple realities. Research indicates that those leaders who are most effective in the international setting have the ability to solve complex problems in many different situations. They fen thrive on the adventure of meeting this cultural challenge. According to J.

Bennett (1993), expatriates tend to assume a unique cultural identity stemming from their multiple frames of reference (Cassiday, 2002). She describes this experience as cultural marginality, which is best described as a cultural lifestyle on the edge of two or more cultures. Importance of the Team Developing relationships across cultural boundaries is a necessary part of being an effective leader (Cassiday, 2002). Having good working relationships is the key to success. The greater the difference in cultural values; the more difficulty there was in adjusting to the host culture.

Even the most experienced expatriates found many challenges in host cultures where the value system was very different from their own. Expatriate Candidate Selection Careful candidate selection is a crucial step for schools hoping to successfully support expatriate teachers (Cassiday, 2002). Human resource personnel with international experience and intercultural training are better equipped to make the best selection of top candidates for international assignments. Candidates who express an interest in an overseas assignment are usually more successful than candidates who are directed or pressured to accept such an assignment.

Because ethnocentrism is greatest challenges to effective intercultural leadership, assessing a candidate's stage of intercultural sensitivity, prior to an overseas assignment, could assist the school in designing the training and support needed for the reduction of culture shock and the promotion of cultural self-awareness. It is important to select teachers who have professional and technical expertise (Cassiday, 2002).

In addition, candidates with educational backgrounds that include foreign languages, studies in history, culture or other social sciences, have already demonstrated a personal interest in topics that demonstrate their potential to be successful in an international setting. Effective communication skills are a good indicator of a leader's ability to lead. Candidates that have the ability to listen at deep levels, as well as express themselves effectively, show the relationship skills necessary for influencing organizational performance.

It is not necessary for every candidate to possess all of these attributes, but having some combination of these criteria may indicate the potential for success. Leadership Style Millennium expectations as to what constitutes effective twenty-first century leadership are complex and multifaceted. According to Black (Cassiday, 2002): "Inquisitiveness is at the core of our global leadership model." Inquisitiveness is the driver in a leader's attempts to understand and explore new possibilities. These leaders have an interest and challenge in figuring out the best approach or path.

A second characteristic is the "ability to embrace a duality of perspective; an ability to hold differing worldviews. Global leaders are skilled in handling the duality of global integration and local adaptation." The third part of this model is character. "To be successful, global leaders must be able to develop a sense of trust and goodwill with people who have different cultural paradigms.

This requires connecting to others emotionally while modeling unbending integrity." Savvy is the fourth component; it suggests that leaders must have an understanding of what needs to be done and how to access the resources to bring forth change. International experience has a deep affect upon the worldview of an international school leader (Cassiday, 2002). The leaders who were most satisfied with their own performance demonstrated the ability to reflect on the cultural paradigms that influence their individual perceptions and assumptions.

International experience opens doors for the leader to become more aware of his or her personal cultural perspective. Understanding and valuing many cultures allows the leader to gain a perspective of group interactions from an enhanced level of abstraction. According to Cassiday (2002): "International experience strengthened leaders' ability to create a collaborative environment. Creating an environment that fostered a sense of respect and trust among group members was important.

The leader's ability to facilitate communication and collaboration in difficult situations allowed un-discussable problems to be brought into the open and allowed teams to synthesize the best of the differing cultural perspectives." LEADERSHIP THEORIES Leadership is a difficult concept to define. It is one of those qualities that can be seen but is difficult to describe. Many people have come up with many different definitions of leadership. Some people associate leadership with one person leading. According to Doyle and Smith (2001): "Four things stand out in this respect.

First, to lead involves influencing others. Second, where there are leaders there are followers. Third, leaders seem to come to the fore when there is a crisis or special problem. In other words, they often become visible when an innovative response is needed.

Fourth, leaders are people who have a clear idea of what they want to achieve and why." In this light, leaders are individuals who possess the ability to think and act creatively in non-routine situations - and who aim to influence the actions, beliefs and feelings of others (Doyle and Smith, 2001). In this sense, being a 'leader' is a personal attribute, which is inherent in an individual's qualities and actions. However, it is often associated with other roles, such as manager or expert.

This is a confusing concept, as not all managers, for example, are leaders; and not all leaders are managers. In the recent literature of leadership (that is over the last 80 years or so) there have been four main 'generations' of theory (Doyle and Smith, 2001): Trait theories. Behavioral theories. Contingency theories. Transformational theories As researchers hit a brick wall in their search for traits, they turned to the behavior of leaders (Doyle and Smith, 2001). Various patterns of behavior were grouped together and labeled as styles.

This became a very popular activity within management training -as seen in Blake and Mouton's Managerial Grid (1964; 1978). Various schemes appeared, designed to develop people's style of working. Despite different names, the basic ideas were very similar. The four main styles that appear are (Doyle and Smith, 2001): Concern for task. Here leaders emphasize the achievement of concrete objectives. They look for high levels of productivity, and ways to organize people and activities in order to meet those objectives. Concern for people.

In this style, leaders look upon their followers as people - their needs, interests, problems, development and so on. They are not simply units of production or means to an end. Directive leadership. This style is characterized by leaders taking decisions for others - and expecting followers or subordinates to follow instructions. Participative leadership. Leaders try to share decision-making with others.(Wright 1996: 36-7) Throughout history, leadership skills have been considered from many perspectives.

Early leadership research, from the 1900s to the 1950s, stressed the differences between leader and follower characteristics (Southwest Educational Development Laboratory, 1992). When it became clear that no single trait or combination of traits could completely explain leaders' abilities, researchers moved on to examine the influence of individual situations on leaders' skills and behaviors. Later leadership studies attempted to pinpoint the differences between effective and non-effective leaders. These studies aimed to find out which leadership behaviors were exemplified by effective leaders.

To understand which factors made leaders effective, researchers used the contingency model to research the connection between personal traits, situational variables, and leader effectiveness (Southwest Educational Development Laboratory, 1992). Leadership research in the 1970s and 1980s refocused on the individual characteristics of leaders that influence their effectiveness and the success of their organizations. The investigations led to the conclusion that leaders and leadership are important but extremely complex components of organizations.

Early leadership studies viewed leaders as individuals that held certain personality traits that formed their abilities to lead (Southwest Educational Development Laboratory, 1992). The studies examined individual traits, including intelligence, birth order, socioeconomic status, and child-rearing practices. Stogdill (1974) observed six groups of personal factors that are commonly associated with leadership: capacity, achievement, responsibility, participation, status, and situation. However, it was concluded that narrow characterization of leadership traits was insufficient: "A person does not become a leader by virtue of the possession of some combination of traits" (Stogdill, 1948, p. 64).

Attempts to isolate specific individual traits suggested that no single characteristic can distinguish leaders from non-leaders or followers. These "trait" investigations were followed by research that focused on the "situation" as the determinant of leadership abilities (Southwest Educational Development Laboratory, 1992). This developed the concept of situational leadership. Studies aimed to identify "distinctive characteristics of the setting to which the leader's success could be attributed" (Hoy & Miskel, 1987, p. 273).

Hencley (1973) examined leadership theories and concluded that "the situation approach maintains that leadership is determined not so much by the characters of the individuals as by the requirements of social situation" (p. 38). In this light, a person could be a follower or a leader depending on a variety of factors. Research aimed to identify specific characteristics of a situation that influenced leaders' performance. Hoy and Miskel (1987) found four areas of situational leadership: "structural properties of the organization, organizational climate, role characteristics, and subordinate characteristics" (p. 273).

Situational leadership revealed the complexity of leadership but still proved to be insufficient because the theories were unable to predict which leadership skills would be more effective in various situations. Subsequent attempts to examine leadership resulted in information about the kinds of behaviors leaders displayed in an effort to determine what makes effective leaders effective (Southwest Educational Development Laboratory, 1992).

These behaviors have been grouped along two common dimensions: initiating structures (concern for organizational tasks), which include activities such as planning, organizing, and defining the tasks and work of people, and consideration (concern for individuals and interpersonal relations), which addresses the social, emotional needs of individuals -- their recognition, work satisfaction and self-esteem influencing their performance. In a nutshell, the situation approach to leadership supported the notion that effective leaders had the ability to address both the tasks and human aspects of their organizations.

Several studies on leadership characteristics focused on the link between personality characteristics, leaders' behaviors, and situational variables (Southwest Educational Development Laboratory, 1992). The "situational leadership" approach includes an underlying assumption that various situations require various types of leadership, while the contingency approach attempts to "specify the conditions or situational variable that moderate the relationship between leader traits or behaviors and performance criteria" (Hoy & Miskel, 1987, p. 274). According to Fiedler (1967), leadership styles indicate leaders' motivational system and leadership behaviors are leaders' specific actions (Southwest Educational Development Laboratory, 1992).

In this light, group effectiveness was a result of the leaders' style and the individual situation. House's (1971) Path-Goal Theory focused on the interaction of leadership behaviors with situation characteristics in assessing the leaders' effectiveness.

House pinpointed four leadership behaviors: "directive, achievement-oriented, supportive, and participative, and two situational variables (subordinates' personal characteristics and environmental demands such as the organization's rules and procedures) that most strongly contributed to leaders' effectiveness." The contingency models advanced understanding of leadership but did not completely address what combination of personality characteristics, leaders' behaviors, and situational variables are most effective. Current Leadership Research The leadership literature of the 1970s and 1980s, which focused on effective leaders, looked to personal traits as determinants of leadership abilities (Southwest Educational Development Laboratory, 1992).

This research helped to clarify the impact of personal characteristics and individual behaviors of effective leaders and their role in the success of an organization. The studies showed differences between leaders and managers and introduced a new leadership characteristic, vision, and explored its importance. Along with having vision, effective leaders are believed to facilitate the development of a shared vision and value the human resources of their organizations.

Burns (1978) coined the concept of transformational leadership, which is essentially a process by which "leaders and followers raise one another to higher levels of morality and motivation" (p. 20). According to Burns (Southwest Educational Development Laboratory, 1992), transformational leaders are those that appeal to higher ideals and moral values, including justice and equality, and can be found at various levels of an organization. Research on transformational leadership stresses that effective leadership in an organization is of utmost importance (Southwest Educational Development Laboratory, 1992).

Early examinations of leaders showed the differences between leaders and followers. Later leadership studies differentiated effective from non-effective leaders. The comparison of effective and non-effective leaders resulted in the identification of two dimensions, initiating structures and consideration, and revealed that effective leaders were high performers in both areas. Leadership was recognized as a complex enterprise, and as demonstrated in recent research, vision and collaboration are important characteristics of effective leadership.

Transformational Leadership Burns (1977) argued that there between transactional and transforming leaders (Doyle and Smith, 2001) "The former, 'approach their followers with an eye to trading one thing for another, while the latter are visionary leaders who seek to appeal to their followers 'better nature and move them toward higher and more universal needs and purposes'.

In other words, the leader is seen as a change agent." Transactional and transformational leadership Transactional The transactional leader: Recognizes what it is that we want to get from work and tries to ensure that we get it if our performance merits it. Exchanges rewards and promises for our effort.

Is responsive to our immediate self-interest if they can be met by getting the work done Transformational The transformational leader: Raises our level of awareness, our level of consciousness about the significance and value of designated outcomes, and ways of reaching them. Gets us transcend our own self-interest for the sake of the team, organization or larger polity. Alters our need level (after Maslow) and expands our range of wants and needs. Based on Bass 1985 - Wright 1996: 213) TABLE: Transactional and transformational leadership. SOURCE: Doyle, M.E. And Smith, M.K.

(2001) 'Classical leadership', the encyclopedia of informal education, http://www.infed.org/leadership/traditional_leadership.htm. Skills-Authority Leadership is often confused with authority. According to Heifetz's (1994), authority is often viewed as the possession of powers based on formal role (Doyle and Smith, 2001). In schools, for instance, the principal or school leader is seen as the leader, as they are the people who have the right to direct teachers, staff members and students.

They are obeyed because others see their exercise of power as legitimate or fear the consequences of not following their orders. People also may also follow them because they show leadership. In this way, leaders do more than simply influence; they have to prove that they can handle crises or unexpected events and experiences. Leaders may have formal authority, but they also rely on informal authority. Thus, their personal qualities and actions largely come into play. Leaders are frequently trusted or followed because of their strong personal skills.

Charisma is a major part of how people look at leadership but is a hard quality to explain (Doyle and Smith, 2001). Charisma can best be described as a gift of grace or of God (Wright 1996: 194). Max Weber introduced this idea into the realm of leadership. He used 'charisma' to describe self-appointed leaders who are followed by those in distress. These leaders gain influence because others perceive them as having special talents or gifts that can increase success (Gerth and Mills 1991: 51-55).

Good leaders have the ability to influence others to take actions and adopt behaviors that accomplish a goal or a mission (Strategos, 2004). This can be challenging, especially for leaders dealing with people from a variety of cultures and nations. It may be viewed from many perspectives. For most organizations, problems are obstacles to direct, linear achievement of a goal. The tasks for accomplishment may be murky and solutions to problems may not be clear. In addition, the goal itself may be unclear, unknown or controversial.

The problems faced by an organization may be adaptive in nature, meaning that they require changes in organizations structure, behavior, values, culture or objectives. Non-adaptive problems only require the application of existing approaches. The people who should solve various problems vary, depending on the problem and the available solutions. Table 1 summarizes several types of problem-solution complexes and the people that should be involved in their resolution. These various problem-solution combinations require different levels of leadership.

Table 1: Organizational Issues Problem/Issue Types Solutions Available People Involved Adaptive, Non-Technical & Unclear Unknown and Unclear; Requires Evolution of Values and Innovation All Stakeholders Non-Technical but Clear Partly Known -Some Adaptive Learning Required Experts Aid Diagnosis; Group Solves Problem Technical & Clear Technical, Solutions Exist Expert-Leader Solves Problem SOURCE: Strategos International. (2004). Leadership Levels and Issues. Retrieved from the Internet at http://www.strategosinc.com/leadership_levels.htm. Table 2 summarizes a single perspective on leadership. It views leadership at different levels: Transactional, Relational, Transformational and Charismatic.

If we map the leadership levels of table 2 to the issue types of table 1, we see that lower levels of leadership can cope with technical and non-adaptive problems (Strategos, 2004). Murky, adaptive issues require higher levels of leadership. Different writers and researchers attach different meaning to these terms. For example, some writers view charismatic leaders as any leader possessing charisma and include people such as David Koresh and Jim Jones in this category.

Others view charismatic leaders as transformational leaders with the added characteristic of charisma." Table 2: Levels of Leadership Level Activities & Competencies Personal Characteristics Charismatic- Transformational All of Level III + Personal Charisma All of Level III + Self-Confident Knows Him/Herself Eloquent Free of Internal Conflict Expressive Emotionally Transformational All of Level II + Frames Holistic Issues Sets New Goals & Direction Creates Meaning Manages Creative Conflict Promotes Organizational Learning Creates A Context for Dialogue Manages Paradigms Creates Commitment Through Shared Values Assertive Seizes Opportunities Tolerates Risk Uses Systems Thinking Relational Creates Commitment Through Participation Motivates Intrinsically Promotes Teamwork Manages Politics Works Within Existing System Participative & Consultative Transactional Accepts Organizational Goals Uses Extrinsic Motivators Works Within Existing System Takes Action Directive Dominating Action-Oriented SOURCE: Strategos International.

(2004). Leadership Levels and Issues. Retrieved from the Internet at http://www.strategosinc.com/leadership_levels.htm. Contingency Theories Successful leaders must be able to identify clues in an environment and adapt their leader behavior to meet the needs of their followers and of the particular situation (Allen, 1998). Even with good diagnostic skills, leaders may not be effective unless they can adapt their leadership style to meet the demands of their environment. Fiedler's Contingency Model Fred E. Fiedler's contingency theory holds that there is no best way for managers to lead.

Situations will create different leadership style requirements for a manager (Allen, 1998). The solution to a managerial situation is contingent on the factors that impose on the situation. For example, in a highly routine (mechanistic) environment where repetitive tasks are the norm, a certain leadership style may result in the best performance. However, the same leadership style does not work in a very dynamic environment.

Fiedler examined three situations that could define the condition of a managerial task (Allen, 1998): Leader member relations: How well do the manager and the employees get along? The task structure: Is the job highly structured, fairly unstructured, or somewhere in between? Position power: How much authority does the manager possess? Managers were grouped as either relationship oriented or task oriented (Allen, 1998). Task oriented managers had the tendency to perform better in situations that had good leader-member relationships, structured tasks, and either weak or strong position power.

They also performed well when the task was unstructured but position power is strong. Relationship oriented managers performed better in all other situations. Thus, a given situation may require a manager with a different style or a manager who could take on a different style for a different situation. These environmental variables are combined in a weighted sum that is deemed "Favorable" at one point and "unfavorable" at the other (Allen, 1998).

Task oriented style is ideal at the clearly defined extremes of "favorable" and "unfavorable" environments, but relationship orientation does best in the middle ground. The contingency theory holds that managers could attempt to reshape the environment variables to match their style. According to Allen (1998): "Another aspect of the contingency model theory is that the leader-member relations, task structure, and position power dictate a leader's situational control. Leader-member relations are the amount of loyalty, dependability, and support that the leader receives from employees.

It is a measure of how the manager perceives he or she and the group of employees is getting along together. In a favorable relationship the manager has a high task structure and is able to reward and/or punish employees without any problems. In an unfavorable relationship the task is usually unstructured and the leader possesses limited authority. The spelling out in detail (favorable) of what is required of subordinates affects task structure.

Positioning power measures the amount of power or authority the manager perceives the organization has given him or her for the purpose of directing, rewarding, and punishing subordinates. Positioning power of managers depends on the taking away (favorable) or increasing (unfavorable) the decision-making power of employees." APPLYING LEADERSHIP IN AN INTERNATIONAL SETTING Principals require special capabilities for leadership, such as creating a culture in which an in-depth knowledge of instruction and learning has a strong presence in the interdependent professional community (Fink and Resnick, 2001).

The art of teaching and learning, and the development of strong interpersonal relationships lead to building a community. Principal's conferences and institutes serve as effective means of increasing intellectual and attitudinal commitment to the school district's programs and priorities and provide knowledge about instruction. Principals must develop an individual group of leadership strategies in order to implement commitment and knowledge strategies (Fink and Resnick, 2001). Effectiveness can be increased by using support groups, focus literacy groups, and principal's study groups.

Principals require a development program to create a team of strong instructional leaders who hold a common set of teaching and learning commitments. Principals need the skills to create schools in which student learning is constantly progressing as a result of the faculty continuously learning. De Vries (1995) compared organizations to automobiles, as they cannot run by themselves unless they are heading downhill. People are key to organizations and the right people make an organization effective.

While some people are so effective at their work that leadership is barely necessary and others are ineffective that even the best leader cannot help them, most people fall somewhere in between those two extremes. The majority of workers do their job adequately and go with the flow, looking to their leader to set the course, speed, and duration of that flow. They need guidance and suggestions to be most effective. If a leader desires to improve an organization, he or she must first understand the dynamics of leadership.

While such factors as economics and technological capabilities play a major role in the effectiveness of a school, all the advantages in the world can be countered by poor leadership. To understand leadership, it is important to look beyond the surface. According to De Vries (1995), "We have to pay attention to the presenting internal and social dynamics; to the intricate playing field between leaders and followers; and to unconscious and invisible psychodynamic processes and structures that influence the behavior of individuals, dyads, and groups in organizations.

People who dismiss the complex clinical dimension in organizational analysis can't hope to move beyond an impoverished understanding of what life in organizations is all about." In De Vries book, The Leadership Mystique, three issues are discussed: The Rationale of Irrationality. While many leaders display irrational behavior, De Vries argues that behind their irrationality lies a rationale that needs to be acknowledged and dealt with. Even the most thorough plans can be destroyed due to out-of-awareness forces that influence behavior.

De Vries describes an understanding of the motivational forces of self and others as "emotional intelligence" -- a skill that he believes is inherent in effective leaders. "It comes down to this: people who are emotionally intelligent are more likely to be effective as leaders. Unfortunately, emotional intelligence isn't something that can be gleaned from a self-help book. On the contrary, becoming more emotionally intelligent is an experiential process." Leadership's Shadow. Leaders have traditionally been portrayed as virtuous and good.

However, De Vries observes that this is not always true, citing evil leaders such as Hitler and Saddam Hussein. "We're far less likely to recognize leadership's shadow when it falls on the workplace, even though that shadow can darken the lives of many," wrote De Vries.

Thus, it must be considered that ineffective leadership is a contradiction in terms - "that the only true leadership is effective leadership - many organizational leaders derail." It is important, when creating a model for leadership, to recognize the interrelationship between personality, leadership style, corporate culture, and organizational decision-making. Seeking the Essence of Effective Leadership. This third issue is concerned with what is necessary to become an effective leader. There are many characteristics of an effective leader.

An individual's leadership style - "a synthesis of the various roles that he or she chooses to adopt - is a complex outcome of the interplay of that person's inner theatre, as expressed in core issues (which are influenced by traits and temperament), and the competencies that the person develops over the course of the lifespan." An effective model for leadership will address these characteristics.

According to Robert Evans in The Human Side of School Change (1996): "At the core of traditional approaches to change lies an arrogance that invites failure and plays a key role in the inability of those approaches to overcome resistance. Innovation is almost certain to encounter problems when its implementation is defined according to only one reality. The reason is straight- forward: the subjective reality of the implementer [in schools, the individual experience of the teacher] is crucial to successful innovation; transforming this subjective reality is a key task of change.

When change agents assume they have "the right answer" and ignore the processes that foster this transformation they can be "as authoritarian as the staunchest defenders of the status quo." According to Fink and Resnick (2001), principals must hone their instructional leadership skills in order to create quality improvement in their schools. Schools must serve as be learning organizations that are continuously improving the ability to teach children.

Teachers must be able to learn from principals, rather than simply take instruction from them, and principals, must learn from respective superintendents or whatever higher position they are guided by. In this light, all participants in the school system are interconnected in a learning circle. Existing empirical literature on educational management and leadership (including Greenfield 1991, Dalin, 1993 and Sergiovanni, 1998) stress the importance of the role of school leaders as educational leaders in developed countries (Memon, 2000). This applies to international schools, as well.

Research on effective schools clearly shows that school leadership is a critical element, an greatly contributes to the success of a school. As a result, it is widely accepted that good schools always have good leaders. However, the role of a school leader, particularly in the international context, is becoming increasingly complex and difficult. As a result, they experience many numerous difficulties to "walk the tightrope" (Daresh and Playko, 1998) of school management.

However, expectations of education reforms in many countries have compelled school leaders to make administrative functions a top priority (Memon, 2000). OFSTED report (1995) maintains that that few school leaders spend enough time evaluating the quality of teaching and learning. Rather, many leaders spend most of their time on activities related to role of the 'chief executive' and professional leadership actions are placed on the back burner.

Williams (1988) already predicted that the school leaders in the United Kingdom would take on roles of managers of an imposed curriculum rather than partners in curriculum development. This suggests the practical dilemmas and challenges of school leaders' role as "leading professionals." Ribbins (1993) discusses four key roles of school leaders: curriculum chief, school leaders, abnegators, and chief administrators. As a result, a major hierarchical forms of management has been created (Garrett, 1997).

In many cases, leaders in this position lose their insight into pedagogical matters, which is a great concern for international schools. In developing countries, the school leader or principal's role as an education leader is not recognized in school effectiveness and improvement process (Memon, 2000). The heads of schools tend to work as 'administrators' rather than 'professional leaders' due to the increased demands of education reforms.

Black (1993) suggests that formal and focused professional development programs would be helpful for school leaders to ensure centrality of their role -- an important concept in guiding the direction of school effectiveness and school improvement. Fullan (1999) stresses the importance of enhancing the operational knowledge of school leaders, as they have the most power in bringing about change in schools.

For international schools, these measures may help transform schools as "learning schools or moving schools through developing a shared vision, empowerment, collegiality, professionalism, and motivation." According to Bolman and Deal (1991), school leaders require flexible strategies to cope with changing environments (Memon, 2000). They must also develop and maintain core values and beliefs -- requirements for managing schools effectively. It is important to seek out new ways of researching leaders and leadership in education.

According to Sergiovanni (1998), warns that despite the widespread use of various leadership strategies, including bureaucratic, visionary and entrepreneurial leadership, schools are not yet transformed to help students to improve their learning outcomes and teachers to improve their professional knowledge and skills. Better student results cannot be achieved until a new conception of leadership and different set of school improvement strategies is achieved.

From this literature review, it seems that international schools cannot be improved without their effective leadership, which has implications for school management generally and particularly for the role of school leaders, such as school leaders or principals (Memon, 2000). The professional development of school leaders is a key role in preparing them effective pedagogical leaders in managing their schools effectively. According to Bredeson (1992), school leaders must understand their new roles if school restructuring will be successful.

Literature on educational management and leadership suggests that school leaders must be prepared as educational leaders in term of 'leading professionals' or 'pedagogical leaders' who should be interested in both administrative matters and the whole school improvement process (Memon, 2000). School heads' role as 'pedagogical leaders' must be reformulated and recognized in the broader perspective of educational management and leadership in international schools. Leaders must be encouraged to develop their own school vision by involving other stakeholders that can help them to improve school development plans (Memon, 2000).

At the national and provincial government levels, the role of leaders and their required professional qualification for assuming this role in schools should be debated for formulation of policy geared towards a recognition of their role as pedagogical leaders -- a role that is greatly undermined by senior educational managers in the education department. This can pave the way for making school leaders accountable for the development of their own schools.

A review of existing literature strongly demonstrates that successful leaders create change in schools that ultimately improve learning for all students. Wagner (2001) describes this as an "action theory" of change because it is a mixture of ideas informed by theory but developed mainly from practice. The theory describes how to create the conditions and abilities for sustaining change, which must be developed before more specific action plans can be developed.

A theory of change must address the following question: What motivates adults to want to do new and sometimes very difficult things (Wagner, 2001)? This question is especially important in education, as the temperament, training, and working conditions of most teachers predispose them to resist change. On the other hand, leaders are typically individuals who like change and so see teachers' reluctance to change as sheer stubbornness or indifference. According to Wagner (2001): "Most teachers are neither stubborn nor indifferent, but they do resist change for reasons that leaders must understand.

Three of the most common factors contributing to teachers' resistance are risk aversion, "craft" expertise, and autonomy and isolation." Risk Aversion. Wagner states that, throughout history, teachers choose this profession because it promises a high degree of order, security, and stability. Most educators are risk-averse by nature, while business people tend to be open to risk.

According to Wagner, this fundamental difference in temperament is one reason why the two groups often lack understanding for one another, and this lack of understanding and communication contributes a great deal to the absence of a more thoughtful, balanced dialogue about educational improvement. The training and working conditions of many teachers may increase this risk aversion. Schools of education promote docility with many lecture courses yet few opportunities for problem solving and original thinking. In many regions, school district leadership rewards compliance rather than creativity and initiative.

"The educational "fads of the month" that have swept through schools for the past 30 years have served to reinforce the belief of many teachers that innovations are the fleeting fancy of leaders who are here today and gone tomorrow -- and so are not to be believed." Craft Expertise. Traditionally, many individuals worked alone as farmers and craftsmen. Similarly, education has been considered a "craftsman's" trade and, thus, is an ideal career for people who enjoy working alone and want to develop a degree of expertise in their craft.

For many teachers, their special units or courses, such as Geology, English or Music, show expertise they have developed throughout their careers and are sources of pride for them. Teachers' greatest sense of job satisfaction often comes from introducing just a few students to their "craft." Many teachers feel that giving up teaching such units would diminish their feelings of uniqueness as human beings. Many view the call to create uniform standards as a demand that everyone teach the same thing in the same way.

This may be seen as a threat to their identity. Autonomy and Isolation. Risk aversion and pride are factors that influence the reluctance of teachers to change, but the factors that limit their capacity to change are their autonomy and isolation. Craftspeople may demonstrate their temperamental predisposition for autonomy, but they are not necessarily isolated like many teachers are. Educators are indeed isolated from the rapidly changing world of globalization and business innovation.

Many teachers are isolated from the fundamental changes that have taken place in the world of work -- changes that require that, to be successful, students will have to have very different skills from those need in the past. Lacking daily exposure in the workplace to these fundamental economic changes, most educators lack an understanding of the urgency of many business and political leaders. Educators spend the majority of their days with children, so they are often isolated from other adults (Wagner, 2001).

The "egg crate" organization of work in most schools reinforces autonomy instead of collaboration. With few opportunities to work with other adults during the workday, many educators fail to develop the skills of teamwork. Many years ago, the opportunity to work alone for most of the day was desired by many adults (Wagner, 2001). Autonomy translated to independence. The world has changed a great deal over the past few decades, however, and the problems and challenges in the modern workplaces simply cannot be solved alone.

For this reason, teamwork is the dominant mode of work in most industries, with the exception of education. However, teachers working alone are finding it increasingly difficult to solve the systemic problem of how to teach better and ensure that all students are learning effectively. It is also important to note that school leaders have a tendency to blame educators for failures in education. As a result, many teachers feel powerless and victimized in their isolation.

Faced with these major barriers to change, some school leaders attempt to apply the most primitive "theory" of human motivation to the problem: appealing to teachers' fear and greed (Wagner, 2001). First, they try forms of intimidation, threatening teachers with the takeover of under-performing schools, or they try to bribe them with the promise of bonuses for improved test scores. However, the majority of teachers are not motivated by these combination of threats and bribes to do the difficult things needed for school change.

In the international school setting, they will simply move on. In addition, international educators have a tendency not to be so motivated by the desire for more money than many in other professions. Therefore, leaders must look down different paths to create the will to learn how to improve student achievement in their schools. According to Wagner (2001): "First, we must acknowledge that most teachers care about students, and they want to make a difference. That's one important reason why many chose the profession initially.

Thus the challenge in motivating teachers is to help them understand what today's students need to know and be able to do for work and for effective citizenship and to help them learn better strategies for teaching all students." Wagner's "Buy-in" vs. Ownership Many school leaders try to communicate to teachers about how the world is different, and even provide them with workshops on new teaching strategies (Wagner, 2001). However, many teachers feel that leaders are more interested in improving test scores and adhering to state standards.

This fails to inspire teachers yet leader demand "buy-in" from teachers for goals and strategies that teachers do not fully understand. As a result, most educational leaders are concerned with how to get "buy-in." However, according to Wagner (2001), this is "the wrong question and the wrong answer." The question is how to create "ownership," rather than buy-in.

"And the answer is that, just as good teachers create classrooms in which students construct new knowledge, leaders must provide learning opportunities that enable teachers to "construct" a new understanding of the world, their students, and their craft -- and so enable them to "own" both the problem and the solution rather than being coerced into "buying" someone else's." If leaders can understand this, then they can work with teachers to develop the new school structures and conditions that will enable them to be more successful.

In a nutshell, Wagner believes that schools require leadership that creates "constructivist" adult learning -- dialogue and critical inquiry. Leadership for change involves creating and sustaining the necessary conditions for continuous adult learning for both teachers and members of the community, as these people are also resistant to change, in many cases. Expatriates can be particularly resistant to change, as they are thrust into a completely new culture.

According to Wagner, there are four essential conditions for adult learning in schools and communities, and thus for educational change -- the S-U-R-E approach to the improvement process in schools: Shared vision of the goals of learning, good teaching, and assessment; Understanding of the urgent need for change; Relationships based on mutual respect and trust; and Engagement strategies that create commitment rather than mere compliance.

Understanding the Urgent Need for Change Most educators know that schools are doing a better job than they were a few decades ago -- more students are graduating from high school, taking advanced courses, and attending college (Wagner, 2001). Teachers are typically doing a better job with a student body that is more diverse and less well-prepared for school than in the past.

The problem is that fundamental changes over the past few decades in the nature of work, in expectations for citizenship, in the basic understanding of what must be taught and how, and in students' motivations for learning have rendered the traditional system of education obsolete (Wagner, 2001). This challenge of trying to determine how to educate all students to meet new high standards is a major challenge to many educators. However, according to Wagner, it is only half of the problem.

Educators must deal with a student population that has changed a great deal over three decades. For many expatriate students, English is a second language (Wagner, 2001). In addition, various cultures translates to many differences in students' life circumstances and motivations for learning. These are the greatest dilemma for many teachers and are much less well understood. The traditional motivations for learning do not have much traction for many young students today, regardless of their culture, skin color, or proficiency in English.

Adult authority has much less influence on young people today, for a variety of reasons (Wagner, 2001). First of all, in many cultures, people have grown more and more skeptical of all forms of authority. The respect for authority that was automatic fifty years ago must be earned today. In addition, for many students, there is an absence of adults from their lives. Many expatriates work longer work hours, contributing to students' sense of isolation and lack of respect for adult authority.

Most young people spend too much time alone and are mainly influenced by their peers. Many feel ignored or neglected and have a great deal of resentment toward adults. Work ethic is the final dull tool that affect teachers' ability to motivate students. However, "downsizing" and our "shopping mall" society have rendered this appeal ineffectual for most students as well.

Young people today have seen too many people work hard and get laid off, and today's media tells them that they can have it all, have it now, and get it without effort. Students today are inclined to believe that the aim of life is to consume, not to create. Unless there is an immediate payoff, most don't see the point of working hard, especially in schools where the tasks are often boring and unrelated to their individual needs or interests.

FINDINGS Despite the importance of good leadership for international schools, there is a lack of research that specifically links these two concepts and explores these relationships in depth. The requirements of effective leadership in an international school setting are unique and should be addressed. The literature review on leadership indicates the significance of interpersonal relationships, for effective leadership. This study proposes that school leaders in international school settings are especially in need of strong interpersonal skills, due to the nature of the environment.

It is proposed that school leaders should be characterized by authenticity, respect, empathy and effective communication, which will ultimately lead to self-actualization and personal growth of followers (teachers, students, parents) and the ability of the followers to take up leadership opportunities on their own. There were some limitations with respect to the analysis and data that may affect the accuracy of the results. For example, international schools were looked at as a whole. Because of the differences between various countries, one model may not apply to all nations.

However, the model was generalized for wide use. This paper displays the findings of a qualitative research project that explored the values, beliefs and assumptions of educational leaders in an effort to determine the best possible leadership model for international school principals (Cassiday, 2002). This paper explores theories relevant to cross-cultural leadership in the educational sector. When an expatriate student is thrust into a new environment, and often a new culture, he or she experiences a change in living arrangements, as well as school environment.

Family members are also experiencing a change in career or educational environments. Research in the field of cultural transition describes various stages of transition and the stress factors that are linked to those stages. Culture shock describes the feelings of intense discomfort and depression experienced when leaving a familiar environment (Cassiday, 2002). According to Kohls (2001) and Paige (1993), culture shock is not something that happens suddenly; instead it occurs slowly over time. Many expatriate students experience cultural shock at some point when attending an international school.

During this time when absolute values are being brought into question, the school leader must function at top performance. An international education gives students, teachers and leaders opportunity for individual growth and development, as well as for new discoveries and new learning. It is important for the school leader, teachers and students to reflect on the cross-cultural experience in an effort to better understand the lessons learned. According to research, there are five leadership practices that are necessary in international Schools (Betts, 2002).

The first and most important of these is simple: Ensure that there is a clear usable written curriculum in place that describes essential learner out-comes and standards, assessment strategies, and essential instructional strategies. While this practice may seem obvious, for every five international schools surveyed in 1996, four either had no such written curriculum or had a textbook-driven curriculum, with no specific guidance for new teachers.

It is no longer acceptable that school leaders cannot or are unwilling to state what they intend to do all day with their students and what improvements will be made during the school year. A clear, written curriculum is of utmost importance in the international school, as it provides a road map for both student learning and school improvement efforts (Betts, 2002). It is a critical tool for transmitting what the school values and for driving daily instruction.

With its naturally transient faculty, student, and parent populations, the international school "reputation" rests heavily on the understanding that, regardless of mobility, students attending this school will get a quality education (Betts, 2002). It is only through the promise of a curriculum, carefully created to include what students will learn and how they will learn, regardless of changes in faculty, that this can be achieved. The curriculum shows what the school is.

In a school that has no clearly articulated curriculum, teachers teach what they are comfortable with, using the methodologies they believe in (Betts, 2002). Regardless of how good a teacher might be, the school cannot, for example, assure the parents of two ninth-grade students with different English teachers that they will have any common learning outcomes.

How do school leaders respond, for example, to a parent of a ninth grade student who does not agree with the curriculum a particular teacher has selected? Unless the school has explicitly communicated to the parents and other school community members that what is taught is up to the teacher, what is the recourse? If learning is the primary purpose of international schools, what and how well students learn cannot be compromised.

The effective international school curriculum includes what students should know and be able to do, as well as what "habits of mind" the school will help them acquire (Betts, 2002). This does not imply, however, a simple prescription list of content; it implies describing crucial concepts and abilities based on the leader's vision of the purpose of education. However, there is a strong case for expanding the definition of "written curriculum" in international schools (Betts, 2002).

A written curriculum extends beyond the typical goals list to include guidelines for and descriptions of major assessment strategies, as well as key teaching methodologies that reflect the school's philosophy of teaching and learning. Effective school leaders will communicate to teachers and parents what students are expected to accomplish, as well as provide avenues for assistance. In most school settings, leaders are encouraged to empower teachers and develop teacher-leaders, yet the international school curriculum include both key, required assessment strategies and teaching methodologies (Betts, 2002). There is an explanation for this.

A school holds a belief that "Students learn through writing" and that becoming an excellent writer is a desired outcome. Would it be acceptable, then for a 5th grade teacher to require a single, two-page piece of writing each semester? Would it be acceptable for a student to complete that same 5th grade without ever having learned the writing "process"? If a school leader finds these practices unacceptable, the curriculum is the place to make it known (Betts, 2002).

The curriculum is the tool through which leaders are able to translate the important beliefs of the school into daily classroom practice. Both our assessment tools and the daily instructional strategies are concrete curricular tools. The curriculum is the teachers' main source of guidance regarding what the school is attempting to accomplish and what that translates to in their classrooms. With a written curriculum, which specifies learner outcomes, the stage is set for an extremely vulnerable, unpredictable, experience for all parties.

A written curriculum with these three components acts as a point of departure for nearly all major school improvement efforts (Betts, 2002). Once the curriculum is set and regularly in use, it acts as a barrier against the "band-wagon fad" approach to education that has long been rejected in the educational arena. For instance, recently, many international school have become increasingly interested in improving assessment practices in their schools. Many of these are the same schools that do not have written curriculums.

If these schools had clear, written learning outcomes in place, they would be in a better position to evaluate if new assessments strategies are effective and likely to improve student learning. Without them, they are taking unnecessary risks. The written curriculum, with these three components, continually focuses the school on its real purpose, helping to avoid making changes that may seem like "the thing to do," but that are really unrelated to improved student learning (Betts, 2002).

There are those who would argue that having such a curriculum in place stifles the creativity of the teacher and risks losing the "teachable moment: to predetermined learning. These arguments both misjudge the power of a sound written curriculum, as well as set the stage for schools to take even greater risks with their students. A key trend of the future will be the twin phenomena of globalization and Balkanization (Hobson, 2000).

Even as English grows as the world's main language, cultural preservationists aim to keep their local language intact, as well as preserve their culture. New York Times columnist Thomas Friedman recently wrote a book about the twin phenomena, entitled The Lexus and the Olive Tree. According to Friedman, the Lexus car, which was mostly built by robots using parts from dozens of countries, symbolizes globalization while the olive tree symbolizes the desire to cling to one's cultural roots. Change and tradition are equally strong human impulses.

One should not be underestimated. The international school leader stands in the middle of the intersection of these two trends (Hobson, 2000). The challenges for international schools are complex. Researchers question if they will turn out internationalists, comfortable only among each other, belonging no where in particular. Some argue that their graduates will be more prepared to adapt to the cultures in which they live and work, becoming a part of their community and contributing to it. Others believe they will dismiss culture as irrelevant in a global world.

International school leaders and teachers face many multicultural issues. Like any problem, this conundrum comes with a great deal of opportunity. According to Hobson (2000): "International schools need to engender a "multicultural consciousness" that pervades the learning community. A "consciousness" which stems from a knowledge base that is connected to social and political issues. Multiculturalism itself could be a fundamental part of the international school culture. I do not advocate this out of ideology. Rather, I believe it to be the only practical alternative to the "us vs.

them" attitude that permeates the typical international school on many levels. I cannot prove here that this attitude heightens anxiety, lowers self-esteem or explicitly impedes learning, though my research points to these consequences.

However, there is little doubt that the situation in international schools, which hold an elite status in their particular setting, is at best less than optimal and at worst seriously deleterious." Based on Hobson's research, the following recommendations are intended to serve as a model for international school educators interested in creating multicultural communities that offer multiple perspectives of content, and a mediated or, reconstructed curriculum infused with cultural issues (Hobson, 2000). 1. Orientation sessions around the host country culture should be held for teachers, parents, administrators, and students (1).

A consistent emphasis on enculturating expatriate communities must be adopted, articulated and maintained. The orientations can be held not just once a year but throughout the year. Schools should utilize a variety of local resources -- governmental, parental, religious, artistic, musical, etc. -- to educate the school community at large. The message here, both implicit and explicit, should be: "We highly value our host society, and we are privileged to operate at its invitation." 2.

Critically analyze and reform the curriculum in all subject areas with two objectives in mind: to identify particular Western biases within each content area and to incorporate local applications into each content area. 3. Embed service learning in the curriculum at every grade level to help forge through direct experience concrete, value-added connections to the local culture and community. These projects should be ongoing, integrative and sequential, providing meaningful learning experiences throughout each student's school career. As described earlier, some schools have developed wonderful programs in this area.

Regional school associations should document these programs and disseminate them to their member institutions. 4. Become a fully bilingual or even multilingual institution from the early grades, if not from the get-go. Most countries except the United States embrace the notion of multilingual schools, which impart fluency in a second and third language to all children.

Although there are many different models of bilingual schools, it is only important that these programs employ "integrated language programs." These encourage fluency in two languages rather than using one language as a transitional tool to learning the next language. The "big idea" is that an integrated language policy can be the basis for an educational structure that is linguistically and culturally "decentered," thus protecting against ethnocentrism and balkanization in schools. 5. Taking this notion even further, the second language should be the language of the host country.

While the first language of instruction in American or British international schools will necessarily be English, there is no reason why the second language should not be Swahili or Spanish, Arabic or French, Mandarin Chinese or Italian, depending upon where the school is situated. Indeed, I can think of no single measure that would do more to edify and enrich the learning of the international student.

The notion that all students, regardless of their nationalities or native languages, would be required to learn the host country language would go very far indeed toward sending the multicultural message. Again, that message is: "In valuing our host culture, we value all cultures." However, I have no illusions about the storm of debate this simple notion would trigger among international educators. They no doubt could muster a host of reasons, both practical and subjective, about why such a program could not be implemented.

But this does not diminish the elegance of the idea. 6. Schools should restructure PTO/PTA's to include all parents, not just the Western activists, in meaningful ways. This is not just an exercise in community relations or diversity. It can enrich the school community while serving the multicultural agenda. Parents can be responsible for seeking out local community resources and creating a human history resource library. In this way, the school members are working towards a similar goal where energy and initiatives become productive. 7.

Finally, professional development for teachers should include sessions about multiculturalism. Teachers need direct instruction on what they should be doing to reinvent or redesign the curriculum to meet the needs of the children in their classes. These workshops should include strategies on how to deconstruct and reconstruct the content of what they are given to teach. Teachers must be explicitly trained how to reconstruct curriculum. It cannot be assumed that if mandated, teachers will know how to do this.

Regional associations can play a leading role here, drawing on expertise from both within and outside their networks and at the same time sending an important cue to their member institutions about multiculturalism as a priority issue. If international leaders take the time to address issues in multicultural education, the ability of the profession to meet the challenges of international schools will increase. An effort to enhance an understanding of multiculturalism through professional development sessions must occur.

Views of school leadership are changing largely because of current restructuring initiatives and the new age of globalization (Liontos, 1992). The problem, explain Douglas Mitchell and Sharon Tucker (1992), is that leaders have the tendency to think of leadership as the capacity to take charge and get things done. This view prevents them from focusing on the importance of teamwork and comprehensive school improvement.

Perhaps it is time, they say, to stop thinking of leadership as aggressive action and more as a way of thinking -- about teachers, students, learning and the nature of the educational process. Thus, instructional leadership should be a lesser priority and transformational leadership should be a greater priority. In today's age of globalization, there has been a shift in businesses away from Type A to Type Z organizations (Liontos, 1992).

Type Z organizations reduce differences in status between workers and managers, emphasize participative decision-making, and are based on a form of "consensual" or "facilitative" power that is manifested through other people instead of exercising power over other people (Leithwood, 1992). While there have.