Historical background, relationships, and contributions of twelve periods in Western civilization

¶ … society as if it were essentially autonomous: There were the Egyptians, and the Greeks, and then the Romans, and so forth. But while, of course, there are core practices, habits, and beliefs -- and historical moments -- that set off these and other societies from each other, there are many key connections as well. Societies borrow from each other all the time; indeed, one might argue that the level of "borrowing" from one culture to the next arises to the level of grand larceny.

When one thinks about it, though, there is every reason for societies to borrow from each other in the same way that one generation learns from its predecessor, and passes on what it has learned. Some of what different societies passed along to each other took the form of technological advancements, so that European architects took the technology of the Romanesque building and developed it into the Gothic style, thereby being able to build taller, more delicate structures. Europeans who traveled east during the Crusades came into contact with the sophisticated developments in math and science of the Arabs and brought them back to Europe where this knowledge helped to spark the Renaissance.

These scientific advancements would in turn lead to the Industrial Revolution of the 19th century, which would fundamentally change the entire world, shifting us not only from the labor of humans and animals to machines and loosening the grip of tradition across all cultures, allowing for further changes in politics, art, and the very concept of the human condition. People would begin to live longer and experience in the cities that were themselves in part a result of the Industrial Revolution a wider horizon than those in any previous society would have had the possibility even to imagine.

Mesopotamia

Mesopotamia is considered to be the cradle of civilization. It was in all likelihood home to the first cities and the first domestication of both plants and animals (Dlott, 2007). During the Sumerian period (when the Sumerians and Akkadians dominated the Middle Eastern region from approximately 3100 BC to t539, when Babylon fell), in what is now the territory of Iraq, many of the most important aspects of modern society were developed, including mathematics, writing systems, legal systems, and medicine). In 539 BC. During this period, of course, there were a number of peaks and valleys within the civilization, but the establishment of many of the basics of modern culture was established within that time period (law, medicine, formal writing, mathematics, etc.) Pollock, 1999).

Because there is no substantial documentation of previous civilizations, it is hard to make connections between Mesopotamia and whatever came before. However, it is logically clear that previous societies were hunter-gathers (Dalling, 2006). Once these nomads settled down and began to plant crops, they began to require the structure of modern cities. With a steady food supply, mortality (and especially infant mortality) began to fall, and so people stayed in this new Eden (Museum, 2009).

Egypt

Humans may have settled in the area that is now Egypt (around the fertile Nile Valley) as long as 10,000 years ago (8,000 BC). They called their country Kemet, which referred to the rich black soil in the valley (Bard, 2000). Like the Mesopotamians, they were farmers and also fished in the river. In 3150 BC, the entire area of Upper and Lower Egypt was unified under a single king and began to develop a shared culture, which in turn led to an increasingly complex political and economic system (Dodson, 2004).

The kingdom of Egypt lasted until is was annexed by Rome in about 31 BC. During the height of its civilization, Egyptians -- dependent for life on being able to predict the rise and fall of the Nile -- developed sophisticated writing systems, advanced mathematics, and a well-established division of labor. The Egyptians also seemed to have created a more sophisticated social and legal system than Sumer and a complex calendar system (James, 2005).

The Egyptions, who had a relatively sophisticated medical system, also developed a complex relationship with death. They mummified bodies so that people could be whole in the after life (Mummies and Mummification, 2003) and even briefly experimented (for the first time in human history) with monotheism (Aldred, 1991). The learning, artistry, and culture of Ancient Egypt would pass in turn first to the Greeks, and then to Rome (Siliotto, 1998).

Greece

Ancient Greece took the Ionian peninsula, a rocky land west of modern Turkey. They were a seafaring people who incorporated much of the knowledge and technology of older cultures, especially that of Egypt, but also of Phoenicia and Babylon) (Freeman, 1996). The Greeks spread their society farther and farther, especially through trade routes that the Romans would later take over (Hansen, 2006). Because the empire was so far-flung, there was actually no single Greek culture but a number of related ones. The complex relationship among the different subcultures gave rise to the political organization of democracy (Rhodes, 2004).

The Greeks developed the basis of modern. One scholar noted: "Western philosophy is just a series of footnotes in Plato" (Philosophy - "Series of Footnotes to Plato," 2009). Greek drama still influences contemporary theater (Gutzwiller, 2007). Greece synthesized all of the most sophisticated aspects of Far Eastern and Near Eastern civilizations and in turn passed these on to later societies. The Roman poet and orator Horace described this influence of Greece on philosophy, architecture, medicine, politics, literature, and education. In fact, the influence of Greece was so great on Rome, the Roman poet Horace even said, "Captive Greece took captive her fierce conqueror and instilled her arts in rustic Latium" (Horace).

Rome

The great empire of Rome began as an agrarian-based society called the Etruscans who settled on the Italian peninsula. The Romans borrowed heavily from all past cultures and used this knowledge and know-how to build a geographically huge empire through well-honed organizational skills. After conquering Greece, the Romans moved on to take Spain (Iberia) and Britannia (England) and became lords of the Mediterranean. The Greek Empire extended from Britain to modern Germany, from India through Northern Africa to the headwaters of the Nile (Scarre, 1995). The huge size of the empire made it subject to political upheaval (Elton, 1996).

Most of the culture of Ancient Rome was inspired, if not outright copied, from Ancient Greece. The size of the Roman Empire required it to develop both a well-disciplined army that not only conquered people across Europe but then established Roman law and culture in each new colony (Goldsworthy, 2003). Rome took Greek and Egyptian technologies to new levels. Much of Roman learning and technology would be lost after the fall of Rome and not recovered until the Renaissance.

Roman houses had indoor plumbing, including flush toilets, and a sophisticated system of aqueducts that brought water to the cities and irrigate crops. Roman cities were cleaner and better organized would be for centuries (Bird, 2007). But even in the Dark Ages there were be glimmers of Roman cultural, religious, and technological achievements -- including the basis for most modern European languages (thinkquest.org, 1999).

Byzantium

The Byzantine Empire was essentially the Eastern half of the Roman Empire that split off in the fourth century AD due to a variety of political, religious, and cultural factor. The empire was centered between the Adriatic and Black Seas, and so occupied a strategic trading area. As Rome lost power and influence, Byzantium rose to fill much of its political role in Europe (Harris, 2007). At the time it was happening, there was no clear distinction between Rome and Byzantium as they divided. In fact in 324 AD the official capital of the Roman Empire shifted to Byzantium. It was called Constantinople (after Emperor Constantine). (the city is now called Istanbul.) Citizens of Constantinople carried on with the technology and social structure of Rome, including the practice of Christianity (Adena, 2008).

The Byzantine Empire lasted for a millennium and its influence allowed for the continuation of Greco-Roman cultural heritage and learning, keeping these traditions alive as most of Europe fell into the Dark Ages. The magnificence of the Byzantine Empire ended at last with the Fall of Constantinople to the Muslim Ottoman Turks in the 15th century (Halson, 2002).

Until its fall, the Byzantine Empire provided a sanctuary for Western learning and culture. If it had not been as strong as it was, Byzantium would not have been able to withstand the emerging power of the Islamic empire. Primarily because it was such an important trading locus, the economy of the empire blossomed. These same trade routes (like the Silk Road) also spread the culture, art, and learning of Constantinople across Eurasia as well as North Africa. The wealth of Byzantium also helped to fund the Crusades, one of the effects of which was to revitalize Europe (Laiou, 2002). Byzantine leaders tended to be very skilled diplomats, which helped them establish a series of treaties with their neighbors. These extended the power of Byzantium as well, and these treaties carried over into alliances in modern Europe (Neumann, 2005). New scholarship suggests that Byzantine Empire was as successful as was Rome in shaping modern Europe (Angelov, 2001).

Islamic Golden Age

The Islamic Golden Age (also called the Caliphate of Islam or the Islamic Renaissance) was a center of government and political, cultural and religious traditions that arose in the early 6th century AD from the teachings of the Prophet Mohammed and reached its height between the 8th to 13th centuries (Kraemer, 1992). The Golden Age was centered around the Saudi Arabian peninsula. Its first capital was Media; at its greatest extent, the Caliphate controlled all of the present day Middle East, northern Africa and parts of Spain, and extending to the Indus Valley. It was thus one of the few empires that rules over three continents (Kennedy, 2001).

After the end of the classical empires of the Middle East (such as Egypt and Assyria) the region was politically and culturally fragmented. The rise of Islam unified the region, partly around religion but also around the rise of agriculture over nomadism. One religious leader expressed it as "All Muslims are partners in three things: water, herbage, and fire" (Chaudry, 2003). While the Islamic world was becoming increasingly wealthy and stable, Europe was fragmenting into feudalism. Most of the learning in the world was going on in the Muslim world, which was home to the arts, engineering, philosophy, and medicine. Learning of all sorts was highly valued: "Muslim artists and scientists, princes and laborers together made a unique culture that has directly and indirectly influenced societies on every continent" (Turner, 1997).

The Crusades in 11th century helped encourage a blending of the Arabic and European cultures. The Golden Age was threatened as the Mongols began a series of invasions at the beginning of the 13th century. The Caliphate was further weakened by a series of plagues beginning in the seventh century (Applied History Research Group-University of Calgary, 1997). The legacy of the Caliphate remains strong in the modern claims of some groups as to the legitimacy of jihad against the West and much of the political tension in the Middle East. However, just as important is the heritage that the modern world enjoys of the learning and literature of the Golden Age (O'Leary, 1929).

The Crusades

The Crusades, European invasions of the Middle East from 1095 to 1291 were officially waged to restore Christian control to the Holy Land. However, as is true of most wars, there was more than one reason for the wars. and, as with most wars, at least some of the reason was economic. As capitalism replaced feudalism in Europe, European merchants wanted new markets for their good. The Papacy used the Crusades as a way to gain power over European kings and princes modern scholarship has uncovered numerous other motives: feudalism was morphing into cap (Riley-Smith, 1990). The Crusades brought new technology back to Europe along with the scholarship of the Middle East armies improved their methods for navigation and shipbuilding and even ways of preserving food so that armies could carry food with them (Asbridge, 2010).

There has been little political unity in Europe since the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the fourth century. The Crusades helped return unity to Europe under a new form of Roman control -- that is, the control of the Pope. European forces won some of the Crusades, whilt Arab forces won others, including the Ninth Crusade, roughly 1271-72, which put an end to Crusader dominance of the area (Madden, 2005).

If one considers the Crusades from their formal goal of attempting to regain the Holy Land for the Papacy, they were a failure. But they were a success overall in that Europe was far stronger and unified afterward. The Catholic Church was also far stronger. There are still political echoes of the Crusades: The current war in Iraq can be seen as a descendant of the Crusades and much of Arabic fury over the existence of Israel as a Jewish state also arises from this centuries-old anger (the Crusades- Crusade Legacy, 2009). Finally, in many ways the Crusades established the foundations of the modern nation-state and opened up much of the world to European exploration and conquest -- including that of Asia, Africa and the New World (Stark, 2009).

Romanesque

The term Romanesque applies less to a political system than to an artistic and architectural term. This period from approximately 1000 to 1240 AD, and describes a style of the post-Roman Empire. This style was marked by rounded arches, barrel vaults, apses, and in Southern Europe Byzantine decorations (Atrisgerinko, 2005). Along with Roman style, the era also saw a rebirth (in some measure) of learning and science (Benson, 1982).

The Romanesque style furthered the traditions of both the Roman and Byzantine Empires. The Catholic Church was both powerful and wealthy during this period, and so it sponsored much of the art and architecture of this era even as it grew increasingly wealthy and powerful throughout this period (Grant, 1996). The artistic and craft developments of this period, which included the architectural advances as well as artistic advancements in metal, enamel and ivory work, detailed bronze and gold sculpture, illuminated manuscripts, stained glass, and embroidery (Toman, 2008).

The churches of this era were taller and stronger than their predecessors because of new building styles such as the use of symmetrical planning, ardent decoration, and ratio in design. Some of these buildings are still standing (Bannister, 2001).

The Gothic Era

Gothic art and architecture evolved from Romanesque art in the early-13th century. Centered in northern and Eastern Europe, it spread to some extent to the South. It was also primarily an artistic movement and was a gradual transition between the Romanesque and Renaissance (Charles, 2008). Most art and architecture of the time was religious telling stories from the Bible for audiences that could not read. The Church was still the primary patron of art (Gothic Art, 2010). As Europe became increasingly urbanized and universities began to grow -- along with the rise of a middle class -- "ordinary" people began increasingly to be the patrons of art. As cities grew, so did trade guilds, which often welcomed artists and helped them to become literate, learn how to keep accurate records, and gain patrons (Cahill, 2008).

The Gothic style is still seen today and certainly influenced other styles through the 18th century, especially in terms of masonry (Gothic Dreams - Appreciating a Cultural Legacy, 2009). The emphasis on the human form in art (and the human condition in literature) continued well into the modern era and helped to secularize art and society as a whole (Punter, 2001).

The Renaissance

The term "renaissance" generally refers to the European Renaissance movement of the 15th -- 17th centuries as Europe moved into the modern world -- although there were whispers of the Renaissance as early as the 12th century. The Renaissance helped revive Roman and Greek traditions in art, music, politics, culture, society and did so within the context of greater and greater urbanization. Capitalism was gaining a firm upper hand over feudalism and Europe was extending its power over the world through colonization (Starn, 1998).

Contact with Muslim traders taught European merchants new methods of trading, including new monetary methods. Italians, and especially Venetians traded between Europe and Arabia, trading spices even as they learned to use the decimal system and algebra. There was also a rise in science and astronomy and in medical research (Morris, 2008).

During the Renaissance, people moved from introspection to outward expression, a shift in politics, culture, the arts. Philosophy and science also advanced. But the Renaissance was not all light and progress: There were widespread wars and a rise in disease. These accompanied the path to Modernism (Looking at the Renaissance, 2007).

The Baroque

An art and architectural movement from the late 17th to early 18th centuries, the Baroque style was elaborate, flowery, and emotional. It was spread through the church, and yet was a primarily secular (Culture in the Baroque Era, 2008). However, there was a link between the decoration of Catholic churches and the Baroque. Elements of classical societies were included and there was an important upswing in scientific research. While borrowing from the past, the Baroque was also floating happily into the future, which would be humanistic, not religious (Friedell, 2009).

Baroque style fell out of favor because of its eleborateness. But the political structures and educational advancements of the time helped move Europe into the Modern age, with modern ideas of the state and the individual (Buci-Glucksmann, 1994). The Baroque era was home to the Scientific Revolution, which included both advances in knowledge as well as a shift to a new way of looking at the world. Butterfield stated that the "revolution turned the authority in English not only of the Middle Ages but of the ancient world…it outshines everything since the rise of Christianity and reduces the Renaissance and Reformation to the rank of mere episodes" ( Butterfield viii).