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Cultural Diplomacy and Soft Power: A Comparative Analysis

Introduction

Cultural diplomacy programs serve as valuable tools for countries to extend their global influence, projecting their cultural values, and fostering international relationships. This paper offers a comparative analysis of the cultural diplomacy programs of two major global powers: China and the United States. Each nation, wielding unique cultural resources and facing distinct challenges, employs cultural diplomacy in diverse ways to advance its global image and foreign policy goals. Through an exploration of the purposes, tools, operational contexts, and impacts of these programs, one can better understand how these activities advance artistic, financial, economic, and political purposes, thereby enhancing national brand image. One can also see, however, the ways that cultural diplomacy acts as a tool of soft power in a play for dominance among hegemons. In a world where digital technology is revolutionizing communication and interaction, understanding the dynamics of cultural diplomacy becomes even more important to the study of geopolitics. Ultimately, this analysis underscores the importance of mutual respect and appreciation in cultural diplomacy, due to its potential to not only serve as an effective tool of influence but also as a bridge bringing nations and peoples closer together. It also highlights the problems of what happens when this tool is used for power plays rather than for building a collaborative international environment.

What are Cultural Diplomacy and Soft Power?

Cultural diplomacy, a subset of public diplomacy, refers to the process where a nation's culture is used as a tool to foster mutual understanding and build relationships with other countries (Mulcahy, 1999). This form of diplomacy is about showcasing a country's cultural richness and diversity to the world, which in turn can foster mutual understanding, respect, and cooperation among nations. Cultural diplomacy can take many forms, such as cultural exchanges, educational programs, art exhibitions, music and film festivals, and language learning initiatives.

For instance, the British Council, the UK's international organization for cultural relations and educational opportunities, facilitates cultural exchanges by sending British artists, musicians, and authors to other countries to participate in events and collaborate with local creatives. In return, it also invites artists and scholars from around the world to the UK for similar engagements. This two-way exchange allows people from different cultures to appreciate each other's artistic and intellectual contributions, fostering mutual respect and understanding. This type of program is common among nations that have erected a framework for international cooperation. The Abraham Accords in the Middle East is another example of how this can take place.

On the other hand, soft power, a term coined by political scientist Joseph Nye, refers to a country's ability to shape the preferences of others through appeal, persuasion, and attraction rather than through coercion or force (Nisbett, 2016). It contrasts with hard power, which involves the use of military and economic means to influence the behavior or interests of other political bodies. Soft power is often associated with the attractiveness of a country's culture, political ideals, and policies. But what is the goal of soft power?

One of the most potent examples of soft power is the global influence of American culture, largely due to the dominance of its entertainment industry. Hollywood movies, American TV shows, music, and even fast-food chains like McDonald's are enjoyed and consumed worldwide. This global reach of American culture, combined with the appeal of its democratic ideals, contributes significantly to the United States' soft power, shaping how people worldwide perceive America and often engendering a positive disposition toward the country, even in regions where political relations may be strained. Through its use of soft power, the US maintains influence as a leading power around the world. For many decades the US stood as the leader in influence—but today its position of power is being challenged.

Comparing China and the US

China's cultural diplomacy program is a powerful manifestation of its global aspirations (Zanardi, 2016). The primary purpose of its cultural diplomacy is to foster a positive image globally, increase its soft power, and facilitate its rise as a global superpower. One example of its cultural diplomacy is the Confucius Institutes, a network of cultural and educational centers spread worldwide, is a significant tool of China's cultural diplomacy, aiming to promote Chinese language and culture (Zanardi, 2016). These Institutes provide language courses, host cultural events, and facilitate academic exchanges.

Chinese cultural diplomacy operates within the broader context of the Chinese government's ambitious foreign policy agenda (Zanardi, 2016). With its rapid economic development, China has sought to bolster its international image and counteract negative perceptions related to its political system and human rights issues. These efforts have seen mixed results. On one hand, the Confucius Institutes have successfully promoted Chinese culture and language, enhancing China's image as a cultural powerhouse. On the other, they have faced criticism and resistance in some countries due to concerns about propaganda and academic freedom (Zanardi, 2016).

Then there is the United States, with its powerful influence on global culture, which has leveraged cultural diplomacy to advance its own foreign policy goals (Mulcahy, 1999; Vogel, 1987). For example, the Fulbright Program has been one of the most influential tools in this respect, fostering mutual understanding between the United States and other countries through academic exchanges (Vogel, 1987). But another prominent example of the United States leveraging cultural diplomacy is through the use of international broadcasting. Networks such as Voice of America (VOA) and Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty (RFE/RL) have been pivotal in advancing American values and culture abroad, particularly during the Cold War era. Voice of America, established in 1942, broadcasts in more than 40 languages and reaches an estimated global audience of over 275 million people weekly. It spreads news, information, and cultural programming, and thus seeks to promote a positive view of the United States and its values of freedom, democracy, and human rights (Cull, 2008). Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, meanwhile, was founded to spread news and information to Eastern European countries behind the "Iron Curtain." Even today, RFE/RL acts as a surrogate media in 23 countries where the free press is banned by the government or not fully established. Both of these networks serve as tools of cultural diplomacy, projecting American values and ideals to a global audience. The idea behind them is to promote Western ideals and and values. However, through these networks, the United States can craft narratives that present its actions in a favorable light and promote a positive image of the country and its culture (Cull, 2008).

The United States also utilizes the soft power of Hollywood, its music industry, and more recently, digital culture and social media platforms to project its cultural influence worldwide. The soft power of Hollywood (i.e., media) is a significant part of the US’s cultural diplomacy toolchest. Hollywood and the American music industry are powerful drivers of the United States' soft power and serve as vital tools in its cultural diplomacy strategy. Their global reach and influence have a significant impact on how the world perceives American culture, values, and lifestyle.

Hollywood, in particular, has a profound impact on global culture. With its blockbuster movies and popular TV series, it reaches audiences worldwide, showcasing American stories, values, and perspectives. By doing so, Hollywood helps shape global perceptions of the United States. Its artists and celebrities share not only their music but also aspects of American culture and values, further enhancing the United States' soft power in parts of the world where native cultural ideals might be significantly different (Zamorano, 2016).

More recently, the rise of digital culture and social media platforms has added a new dimension to the United States' cultural diplomacy. American tech companies like Facebook, Google, and Twitter have redefined how people around the world communicate, share ideas, and access information. These platforms also allow for the rapid and broad dissemination of American cultural content, from viral YouTube videos to trending TikTok dances.

However, it is important to realize that while these elements of American culture can be attractive and influential, they are not universally embraced. Criticisms of American foreign policy, concerns about cultural imperialism, and differing cultural values can sometimes result in resistance or backlash. Therefore, while Hollywood, the American music industry, and digital culture are powerful tools of cultural diplomacy, their impact is somewhat contingent on various factors. Effective cultural diplomacy requires not just the export of culture but also mutual exchange, respect for other cultures, and a willingness to listen and learn.

China also uses film, music and digital technology to gain soft power. For instance, China’s TikTok app is one of the most popular apps the world over. China has indeed been leveraging film, music, and digital technology as part of its cultural diplomacy and soft power strategy. The Chinese film industry, also known as "Chollywood," has been expanding its global reach with films that showcase Chinese history, culture, and values. Chinese pop music, or C-pop, is also gaining international attention, much like K-pop has for South Korea (Moxley, 2011).

A striking example of China's use of digital technology in its cultural diplomacy is TikTok, the video-sharing app developed by the Chinese tech company ByteDance. TikTok's simple, user-friendly interface and powerful algorithm that tailors content to user preferences have contributed to its global popularity. It allows users to create short videos, often with music, that can be shared with a worldwide audience. This platform not only serves as a conduit for Chinese technology but also as a stage for Chinese content creators to share aspects of their culture with a global audience.

Still, the popularity of TikTok has also raised concerns in the United States and other countries. One significant concern is data privacy. As a Chinese-owned app, TikTok is subject to China's national intelligence laws, which could potentially require the company to hand over user data to the Chinese government. This has raised fears about the potential for surveillance and misuse of personal data, leading the U.S. to consider banning the app.

Beyond data privacy, there are broader concerns about the influence of Chinese soft power. The rise of China's influence in film, music, and digital technology can be seen as part of its broader strategy to reshape the global narrative about China and increase its soft power. This cultural influence, combined with China's economic power and increasing assertiveness in international politics, could challenge the dominance of Western, particularly American, narratives and values. For the U.S., this is not just about TikTok or technology but about the shifting balance of global power and influence.

As Ang et al. (2015) argue, cultural diplomacy is about more than the national interest; it's also about the negotiation of cultural differences and the fostering of accomodations. As such, while competition and concerns are inevitable, it is important for both China and the U.S. to engage in cultural diplomacy in a spirit of mutual respect and understanding. Mutual respect and understanding fosters an overall more peaceful global environment. This is important because today’s world is globally integrated, and if countries as big as the US and China cannot cooperate, a significant fissure can emerge on the world stage. Already this appears to be happening with a rift between the US and the Global South emerging over what to do about Russia in Ukraine and China’s position on Taiwan (Yeh & Chen, 2022). As Nye (2008) and Ang et al. (2015) argue, soft power, which includes cultural diplomacy, is essentially about attraction and persuasion. It is about winning hearts and minds, rather than resorting to coercion or force. Thus, understanding and respect through cultural diplomacy can reduce tensions, prevent misunderstandings, and make conflicts less likely. However, the US and China appear to be more and more hostile towards one another today than they have been in the past. When soft power erodes, hard power can manifest in hot wars.

Mutual understanding and respect thus should facilitate cooperation on shared challenges. In today's interconnected world, many problems—such as climate change, global health crises, and international terrorism—are global in nature and require international cooperation to address effectively. Cultural diplomacy can help build the trust and understanding necessary for such cooperation. Plus, it can have economic benefits. It can enhance a country's reputation and attractiveness, and it can boost tourism, attract foreign investment, and promote exports (Lord & Blankenberg, 2016).

Perhaps most importantly, cultural diplomacy that respects and understands other cultures is simply the appropriate thing to do. It upholds the principles of respect, which are fundamental to a just and peaceful world. Of course, this does not mean that war will necessarily result if countries do not engage in cultural diplomacy with mutual respect. However, it can increase tensions and make conflicts more likely, which is in no one's interest.

Operations

In terms of its operational context, American cultural diplomacy is managed by the U.S. Department of State and operates within the broader context of U.S. foreign policy. It's also influenced by the United States' role as a global leader in various cultural fields, including film, music, and digital culture (Clarke, 2016). The impact of American cultural diplomacy has been largely positive if one considers tools like the Fulbright Program, which has been instrumental in creating a global network of scholars and professionals with a nuanced understanding of the United States and its values (Vogel, 1987).

These operations play a significant role in advancing artistic, financial/economic, and political purposes, and shaping the national brand image (Nisbett, 2016; Ang et al., 2015). They facilitate the global exchange of cultural products, contributing to a vibrant global arts scene and enhancing their nations' reputation as centers of cultural production (Clarke, 2016). Plus, by positioning itself as desirable place for study and cultural exchange, the US attracts foreign students and tourists, boosting its economy and attractiveness overall (Wyszomirski et al., 2003). Politically, these types of programs serve as soft power tools, advancing their nations' foreign policy goals, improving international relations, and enhancing their global influence (Cull, 2008; Nisbett, 2013). The national brand image is significantly shaped by these cultural diplomacy efforts, too. While China is seen as an ancient civilization with a rich cultural heritage that is rapidly modernizing, the United States is perceived has been seen as a hub of creativity, innovation, and diversity; although perceptions of the US have been shifting in recent years (Lord & Blankenberg, 2016).

Yet, the digital age has introduced new opportunities and challenges for cultural diplomacy. The pandemic, in particular, has accelerated the digital transformation of cultural diplomacy, with museums, for instance, engaging in digital initiatives to reach global audiences (Grincheva, 2021). Both China and the United States will need to navigate this digital landscape effectively to optimize their cultural diplomacy efforts. As Grincheva (2021) notes, digital technologies offer new avenues for cultural diplomacy under pandemic conditions, allowing for innovative forms of engagement with global audiences.

For China, leveraging digital platforms could be instrumental in counteracting some of the criticism faced by its Confucius Institutes, offering more accessible and less politically sensitive avenues for cultural exchange. China's burgeoning digital culture, from TikTok to online gaming, could be harnessed to project a contemporary, dynamic image of Chinese culture globally. The United States, with its technological prowess and dominance in the digital entertainment industry, is well-positioned to leverage digital platforms for cultural diplomacy. American music, film, and digital media have already found a global audience. Enhancing these offerings through digital cultural diplomacy initiatives could further consolidate the United States' cultural influence.

However, the digital turn in cultural diplomacy also poses challenges. Digital divides, based on access to technology and digital literacy, could limit the reach and inclusivity of digital cultural diplomacy initiatives. Furthermore, the increasing securitization of digital spaces and concerns over data privacy could generate resistance to such initiatives.

To navigate these challenges, both China and the United States will need to ensure that their digital cultural diplomacy efforts are inclusive, respectful of privacy, and sensitive to local contexts. As Zamorano (2016) suggests, an overly instrumental use of culture in diplomacy can lead to backlash. Thus, while digital technologies offer exciting new possibilities for cultural diplomacy, they must be used with an understanding of their limitations and potential pitfalls.

Artistic, Financial/Economic, Political Purposes and National Brand Image

Both the United States and China use cultural diplomacy to advance artistic, financial/economic, and political purposes, and to shape their national brand image in enormous ways. They facilitate the global exchange of cultural products, contributing to a vibrant global arts scene and enhancing their nations' reputation as centers of cultural production. Economically, by positioning their countries as attractive places for study or foreign investment, they benefit from exchange (Wyszomirski, et al., 2003).

Politically, their cultural diplomacy programs serve as soft power tools, advancing their nations' foreign policy goals, improving international relations, and enhancing their global influence (Nisbett, 2013). These goals do not necessarily align, as US opposition to Chinese influence around the world suggests. In terms of national brand image, while China is seen as an ancient civilization with a rich cultural heritage that is rapidly modernizing, the United States, once perceived as a beacon of freedom, democracy, and innovation, now appears more and more to be a nation that disregards international law in the wake of the Ukraine conflict and the US approach to applying sanctions. This distinction significantly influences their respective cultural diplomacy programs and their soft power appeal.

China's national brand image is tied to its long history and cultural heritage, which includes landmarks like the Great Wall, the Forbidden City, and the Terracotta Army, as well as traditions such as calligraphy, martial arts, and traditional Chinese medicine. More recently its brand has been associated with the sociopolitics of integrating a free market with Communism. Its history, combined with its recent rapid economic growth and increasing global influence, creates a dual image of China as both an ancient civilization and a modern superpower. This is reflected in China's cultural diplomacy initiatives, which often aim to showcase both its traditional culture and its modern achievements. In contrast, the United States' national brand image tries to rely on ideals of freedom, democracy, and opportunity, as well as its leadership in technology and innovation in order to project a position of strength and greatness. This image is reflected in the global reach of American popular culture, from Hollywood movies and music to social media platforms like Facebook and Twitter. However, when the US is widely suspected of waging a proxy war against Russia through Ukraine, of blowing up Nordstream 2 pipeline, of appropriating other nations’ Western-held funds, and of using force to oppose other nations’ autonomy, its ability to apply soft power tools is weakened.

Thus, it is important to note that these national brand images are not static but are constantly negotiated and contested. They can be influenced by various factors, including domestic policies, international relations, and global events. For example, criticisms of China's human rights record or concerns about American foreign policy can negatively affect their respective national brand images. Criticisms of the US for disregarding international law can turn smaller nations towards other nations when it comes to the question of friendship. This is happening right now, with China’s expansion.

BRI

The Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), announced by Chinese President Xi Jinping in 2013, is an ambitious infrastructure development and investment project that aims to boost connectivity and trade across Asia, Africa, and Europe. It is often considered one of China's most significant soft power initiatives. BRI involves building a vast network of railways, roads, pipelines, and utility grids that will link China with Central Asia, West Asia, parts of South Asia, and Europe (the "Belt") and creating sea routes (the "Road") to connect China's southern coast to the Mediterranean and Africa through Southeast Asia and the Indian Ocean.

On the one hand, BRI enhances China's soft power by presenting China as a global leader in infrastructure development and economic growth. It facilitates economic development in partner countries, fostering goodwill towards China. Through BRI, China is also exporting its developmental model and governance style, thereby promoting Chinese values and norms (Zhao, 2020). However, the BRI has also raised concerns about debt diplomacy, environmental impacts, and lack of transparency, which can negatively affect China's soft power. Critics argue that the initiative is a strategic tool for China to assert its influence and reshape the global order in its favor (Zhao, 2020).

In comparison, the United States, traditionally a strong wielder of soft power, has long used tools such as cultural exchange programs, global aid initiatives, and its dominant position in international institutions to extend its influence. Yet, the U.S. has not rolled out a direct equivalent to the BRI. Instead, the U.S. has criticized the BRI for what it perceives as undermining the sovereignty of other nations through debt diplomacy and lack of transparency (Zhao, 2020). The U.S. promotes an alternative vision for global development centered on private investment, transparency, economic sustainability, and respect for sovereignty, as outlined in initiatives such as the Blue Dot Network (a multi-stakeholder initiative that aims to certify sustainable infrastructure projects) and the Build Act (which established the U.S. International Development Finance Corporation).

In essence, both the U.S. and China are leveraging their respective strengths to extend their influence. While China uses infrastructure development and economic investment (BRI), the U.S. promotes its model of sustainable, transparent development and democratic values. The effectiveness of these soft power tools, however, depends on how they are perceived by other nations, a perception shaped by a range of factors, including geopolitical considerations, historical relations, and cultural affinities (Nisbett, 2016).